Dr. Sayyid Jalal Hosseini Badakhchani passed away peacefully in London on the morning of 11 August 2026, aged 85. He was a pioneering and distinguished scholar of Ismaili history and thought, with a focus on the Nizari Ismaili literature of the Alamut period. Dr. Badakhchani hailed from a family of scholars who served the Ismaili Imamat for generations; he himself was academically trained by leading Twelver Shi‘i philosopher Jalal al-Din Ashtiani. Dr. Badakhchani was also charged by Mawlana Shah Karim with establishing the Institute of Ismaili Studies Library.

As a young adult and student of Ismaili history, I used to look forward with great anticipation to Dr. Badakhchani’s scholarly publications, sometimes counting down the days to their release dates. While he has published extensively in English and Persian, Dr. Badakhchani’s editions and translations made Nasir al-Din Tusi’s (d. 1274) Nizari Ismaili writings accessible to other academics, the Ismaili Jamat, and the general public.

I know from personal experience that Dr. Badakhchani was always willing to give of his time to help Ismaili students and researchers. He taught at the IIS for many years and he used to promptly respond to emails from interested students and readers of his work. In my own correspondence with him, going back many years, Dr. Badakhchani went out of his way to assist me in my research.

In a tribute published by the Institute of Ismaili Studies, Dr. Daryoush Mohammad Poor writes of Dr. Badakhchani:

“Nearly every scholar now working on Nizari Ismaili literature owes something to Dr Badakhchani’s patient labour of critical editing – manuscripts he tracked down, transcribed and prepared for a readership that did not yet know it needed them. His memory will remain with the IIS for many years to come, and the fruits of that labour will go on serving scholars and students of Ismaili studies long after him. He will be greatly missed.”

Accordingly, I would like to highlight the major publications of Dr. Badakhchani, in which he edited and translated important Ismaili texts. Without his efforts, the Jamat and public would have no access these Ismaili primary texts.

Contemplation and Action by Nasir al-Din Tusi (1998): The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar

This is Nasir al-Din Tusi’s spiritual autobiography called Sayr wa-Sulk in which Tusi lays out his reasons for embracing the Shi‘i Ismaili Muslim faith and accepting the Nizari Imam as the Truthful Teacher (muhiqq). This text is an excellent entry point into Nizari Ismaili thought in general and Tusi’s Ismaili teachings in particular. A key part of the text is Tusi’s argument on the epistemic necessity of the Imam to recognize the Truth (haqq) and the onto-cosmological status of the Imam as the locus of manifestation (mazhar) of God’s creative act of Command (amr).

The Paradise of Submission by Nasir al-Din Tusi (2005): A New Persian Edition and English Translation of Naṣir al-Dīn Ṭūsī's Rawḍa-yi taslīm

This is the most important treatise on Nizari Ismaili philosophical theology from the Alamut period and it was compiled by a team of Nasir al-Din Tusi’s students based on Tusi’s lectures given at Alamut. The treatise begins with metaphysics, theology, and cosmology and proceeds through epistemology and soteriology before discussing Prophethood and Imamology. The metaphysics and cosmology section is important because this text reaffirms and continues the Neoplatonic metaphysics of the Fatimid Ismaili tradition and also the cyclical schema of religious history. Tusi’s revelatory exegesis (ta’wil) of the story of Adam and Iblis is perhaps the most accessible account of this motif in Ismaili works. The Imamology section is extremely important as it contains excerpts from the farmans of the Nizari Imams of Alamut, whose teachings clarify the ontological status of the Imam and the Imamat and related matters such as the succession of Imams. Most notably, this treatise teaches that the office of Imamat is ontologically superior to the office of Prophethood and that the lineage of Imams extends far back in history before Prophet Muhammad and even before the Prophet Adam.

Shi‘i Interpretations of Islam (2010): Three Treatises on Theology and Eschatology: A Persian edition and English translation of Tawallā wa tabarrā, Maṭlūb al-muʾminīn and Āghāz wa anjām of Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī

This is a collection of three Ismaili treatises by Nasir al-Din Tusi. The first treatise, Tawalla wa tabarra is Tusi’s mystical and philosophical explanation of the concept of “solidarity” with the Imams and their followers and “disassociation” from the adversaries of the Imams. By interpreting both terms at various levels of the human soul and intellect, Tusi arrives as deeper and practical manifestations of these principles for Ismaili spiritual life. The second treatise Matlub al-mu’minin is a practical explanation of Nizari Ismaili practice in the 13th century in terms of the shari‘a rituals, their esoteric meaning, and the principles of qiyamat or haqiqat that transcend the shar‘a. The third treatise Aghaz wa anjam is on eschatology and the afterlife from an Ismaili-Sufi perspective.

Dīwān-i Qāʾimiyyāt (Poems of the Resurrection) of Ḥasan-i Maḥmūd-i Kātib (2011):

Ḥasan Maḥmūd Kātib (d. after 640/1243) was an Ismaili poet. Born near Qazvīn, he was alive when Imam Ḥasan of Alamūt (d. 561/1166) proclaimed his doctrine of qiyāmat or spiritual ‘resurrection’ in 559/1164. He was a secretary of the governor of the fortress of Gird Kūh, Shihāb al-Dīn, whom he later followed to Quhistān. Around 630/1232 he was in Alamūt, preparing a copy of the diwan whose surviving fragments are published here, to be offered to the Imam of the Ismailis at the time, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad (d. 653/1255). Ḥasan Maḥmūd was well-versed in the intellectual and spiritual universe of Nizārī Ismailism as recorded, inter alia, in Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī’s (d. 672/1274) Rawḍa-yi taslīm Sayr wa sulūk, and Āghāz wa anjām. The present diwan, edited by Dr. Badakhchani, contains the most complete contemporary catalogue of the terminology used in expressing Nizārī Ismaili doctrine, surpassing even the works of Ṭūsī, Nāṣir Khusraw (d. after 462/1070) and Nizārī Quhistānī (d. 720/1320). [Text from Institute of Ismaili Studies]

Spiritual Resurrection in Shiʿi Islam (2017): An Early Ismaili Treatise on the Doctrine of Qiyāmat: A new Persian edition and English translation of the Haft bāb by Ḥasan-i Maḥmūd-i Kātib

Of the few surviving Nizari Ismaili texts from the Alamūt period, the Haft bāb (Seven Chapters), which outlines the basic tenets of Ismaili philosophical theology, has proved to be the most popular. One of its many attractive features is its simple recounting of the most complicated Ismaili theological narratives, including the doctrine of the Resurrection (qiyāmat). Produced around the year 1203, this small treatise was probably intended as an introduction to the Diwān-i Qāʾimiyyāt compiled by Ḥasan-i Maḥmūd-i Kātib (d. after 1242).

The current text of the Haft bāb, edited and translated into English by S. J. Badakhchani, is based on Badakhchani’s analysis of a great number of manuscripts available, including a complete and unaltered version. The concepts found in the text derive largely from the intellectual heritage of the Fatimids. These include the idea of tanzīh (the absolute transcendence of God beyond human understanding and knowledge); a cyclical conception of prophetic history, consisting of seven eras (dawr); the Ismaili Imamate as the most important pillar of Ismaili Islam; and the Qiyāmat as the completion and perfection of the religious law (shariʿāt). [Text from Institute of Ismaili Studies]

Ya ‘Ali Madad,
Khalil Andani,
Co-Founder and Director, Ismaili Gnosis
Associate Professor of Religion, Augustana College
August 13, 2026

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Editor’s Note: The following material is an edited and updated excerpt of Section 11 from the premium Ismaili Gnosis article, “Where Is Imamat Found in the Qurʾan?” (15 sections). Like the original study, this standalone article — including its annotation — offers both exoteric and esoteric insights into Qurʾanic verses and concepts relating to the Imamat. For a more comprehensive treatment of the subject, please refer to the original article via the link provided at the end of this post.

11. The Imams as the Chosen Ummah: The Pure Monotheist Community Raised by and Submitted to God (Qurʾan 2:127–129; 14:35–37)

In line with the examples we have seen in previous sections, Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾’s sons and grandson (21:72) were appointed as Imams who guide by God’s Command (21:73).1 The Qur’an also records the prayer of Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾ and Ismaʿil⁽ᶜ⁾ for a distinct community (ummah) from among their progeny (dhurriyyah), characterized by perpetual submission to God (2:128), protection from idol worship (14:35), the hearts of others being inclined toward them (14:37), and the raising of a Messenger from within this community (2:129).

• “Remember Abraham said: ‘O my Lord! make this city one of peace and security: and preserve me and my sons from worshipping idols’ (14:35). ‘O my Lord! They [i.e. idols and idol worshipers] have indeed led astray many among mankind. But whoso follows me he verily is of me (fa-man tabiʿani fa-innahu minni). And whoso disobeys me, still You are indeed Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful’ (14:36).2 ‘Our Lord, I have settled some of my descendants (dhurriyyati) in an uncultivated valley near Your sacred House, our Lord, that they may establish prayer. So make hearts among the people incline toward them and provide for them from the fruits that they might be grateful’” (14:37).3

• “And remember Abraham and Ismaʿil raised the foundations of the House (with this prayer): ‘Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us: For Thou art the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing (2:127). Our Lord! Make us submitters (muslimayn) to You and, from our progeny (min dhurriyyatina), a submitting community (ummatan muslimatan)4 to You’ (2:128).5 ‘Our Lord! And raise up within them (fihim) a Messenger from them (minhum) [i.e., a Messenger selected from our descendants] who will recite to them Your ayat (signs), teach them the Kitab (Book) and Hikmah (Wisdom), and purify them. Indeed, You are the Almighty, All-Wise’” (2:129).6

Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾ and Ismaʿil⁽ᶜ⁾ pray for a distinct ummah, described as a “submitting community” (ummatan muslimatan), to arise from their progeny (min dhurriyyatina). They further pray that God raise a Messenger from within this very community (fihim ... minhum) (2:129). In the Ismaili interpretation, this indicates that the ummah muslimah mentioned in Qurʾan 2:128 refers not to the Muslim Ummah in its broad historical sense, but to a particular and distinguished community consisting of a particular group from among the descendants (dhurriyyah) of the Prophets and Imams. This purified community of monotheists wholly submitted to God corresponds to those whom Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾ prayed would be preserved from idol worship (Qurʾan 14:35).

In the Daʿaʾim al-Islam, the Ismaili da‘i and Fatimid jurist al-Qadi al-Nu‘man identifies this ummah muslimah as the “ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾” when discussing the era of the final divinely revealed religion. In this understanding, the “ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾” is distinguished from the broader Muslim community, which includes true believers (muʾminin), hypocrites (munafiqin), criminals, and those considered untrustworthy to render testimony under Sharʿiah standards. As we will see below, Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾ explains that the “ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾” refers to the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House): Hazrat ʿAli⁽ᶜ⁾, Hazrat Fatimah⁽ᶜ⁾, Hazrat Hasan⁽ᶜ⁾, Hazrat Husayn⁽ᶜ⁾, together with the Prophet himself. According to Qurʾan 33:33, they are the ones whom God thoroughly purified.7

Commenting on Qurʾan 33:33 — “Allah’s wish is but to remove uncleanliness far from you, O People of the House (Ahl al-Bayt), and cleanse you with a thorough cleansing” — Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾ explained:

“This verse was revealed in respect of five persons attested as being cleansed of associating others [with God], of serving idols, and of worshipping anything other than God. The origin of this was the supplication of Abraham: ‘And preserve me and my sons from serving idols’ (14:35).”

— Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾, quoted in The Pillars of Islam: Daʿaʾim al-Islam of al-Qadi al-Nuʿman, vol. 1, 48.8

Therefore, it is the Ahl al-Bayt who represent the pure monotheistic ummah muslimah from among the descendants of Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾ and Ismaʿil⁽ᶜ⁾ and, in the fullest sense, the ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾.

According to Qadi al-Nuʿman and the early Shiʿi Imams, there are two senses in which the term ummah may be understood. Of these, only the first constitutes the ummah muslimah that is truly raised by and submitted to God:

• The specific “submitting community” (ummah muslimah), or ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾—namely, the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt.

• The broader community of potential submitters in general.

Those who belong to the second, broader community become participants in the first by following the Messenger and adhering to his Ahl al-Bayt—the true ummah muslimah of Muhammad. This specific submitting community consists of the purified monotheistic servants of God, the possessors of the Book and the Wisdom, designated by the prayer of Abraham⁽ᶜ⁾ and Ismaʿil⁽ᶜ⁾ and alluded to in the deeper meaning of Qurʾan 2:128–129 and 14:35–37. Thus, in the Daʿaʾim al-Islam, we are told of the following exchange between a questioner and Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾:

Questioner: “Inform me … about the community (ummah) of Muhammad. Are they the ahl al-bayt of Muhammad?”

The Imam: “Yes!”

Questioner: “But is it not the case that the Muslims as a whole and each individual who believes in Muhammad and affirms his claims constitute his community?”

The Imam: “This issue is like the [previously discussed issue] concerning the family of Muḥammad.9 The Muslims who do not belong to Muhammad’s House, which is a part of Banu Hashim, cannot be held to be part of his ummah. The people at large, the inhabitants of the East and the West, Arabs and non-Arabs, mankind and jinn, those who believe in God and His Messenger and attest him to be truthful and follow him by allegiance and adherence to the [specific] community into which he [the Messenger] was sent, are [part] of the ummah of Muḥammad by reason of their allegiance to that [particular] community [i.e. the ummah of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾, the Ahl al-Bayt]. Similarly those among the Muslims who profess [their belief] in the unity of God and acknowledge the Prophet are part of the community to which Muḥammad was sent.”

The Imam: “He who denies the excellence of this [chosen] community [i.e., the Ahl al-Bayt] is to be counted among those who say, We believe in some and disbelieve in others, and seek to choose a way in between (4:150). They are the people who upon being asked, ‘Do you believe in God and His Messenger?’ answer, ‘Yes,’ and when they are asked, ‘Do you then acknowledge the excellence of the family of Muhammad in whom you believe, and whom you confirm to be true?’ They respond, ‘No, because they possess no superiority over us.’”

Questioner: “What is the proof that the ummah of Muhammad is [constituted solely by] the members of Muḥammad’s House, whom you mentioned and none other?”

The Imam: “The word of God, … And when Abraham and Ishmael were raising the foundations of the House, (Abraham prayed): ‘Our Lord! Accept from us (this duty). Lo! Thou, only Thou, are the Hearer the Knower. Our Lord! And Make us submitters unto thee, and of our descendants (dhurriya) a submitting community (ummatan muslimatan) unto Thee; and show us our ways of worship, and relent toward us. Lo! Thou only Thou, art the Relenting, the Merciful’” (2:127-8).

The Imam: “God responded to the supplication of Abraham and Ishmael to establish from their descendants an ummah muslimah (community submitting to God) and to send them a messenger from among them — that is from that [very] community — a messenger who would recite His signs to them, and purify them and instruct them in the Book and the wisdom” [2:129].

The Imam: “Then Abraham added to his first supplication on behalf of that [submitting] community — which he had asked to be from his progeny — another supplication seeking [for them] their purification from associating others together with God and from worshiping idols. In this way he sought to make their affairs correct, lest they should follow any other way. Hence, Abraham said, ‘And preserve me and my sons from serving idols (14:35) — that is those on whose behalf I prayed to You [God]. And You [Abraham prayed further] have promised me that You [God] would make them [i.e., my descendants] Imams and an ummatan muslimatan [community rendering submission] and that You would call forth in their midst a messenger from among them and that You would keep them away from idol worship. My Lord! they [the idol worshipers] have led many of mankind astray. But whoso followeth me, he verily is of me. And whoso disobeyeth me—Still Thou art Forgiving, Merciful’” (14:36).

The Imam: “This then constitutes evidence showing that the Imams and [specific] ummah muslimah (submitting community) to which Muḥammad was sent cannot be other than the progeny of Abraham and Ishmael, the dwellers around the sacred precinct (Ka‘ba) and those who never served other than God, as [Abraham] says, And preserve me and my sons from serving idols (14:35). The proof concerning the dwelling place lies in Abraham’s words, Our Lord! Lo! I have settled some of my posterity in an uncultivatable valley near unto Thy holy House, our Lord! that they may establish proper worship; so incline some hearts of men that they may yearn toward them, and provide Thou them with fruits in order than they may be thankful (14:37). But [Abraham] did not say that they should serve idols.”

The Imam: “This Qur’anic verse thus proves that the Imams and the community rendering submission (ummatan muslimatan) on whose behalf Abraham prayed are his progeny, those who served none but God. Then Abraham said, So incline some hearts of men that they may yearn toward them (14:37) [i.e. that some people may incline toward and adhere to Abraham’s progeny, the ummah muslimah]. Abraham’s supplication is specific to the Imams and the community that is from his progeny.

Then, as he had prayed for them [i.e. for his progeny from which the Imams would be appointed], he prayed for their “partisans” (shi‘a) [i.e. Abraham prayed for those people whose hearts would incline towards the Imams and the ummah muslimah of his progeny]. Therefore the people of the supplication of Abraham and Ishmael are surely the Messenger of God, and ‘Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn, and the Imams. He then who bears allegiance to these individuals among the progeny of Abraham and Ishmael belongs to the people intended by their joint prayer, because all of Ishmael’s descendants [at the time the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾ began his mission] did in fact serve idols, apart from the Messenger of God, ‘Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn. Thus the supplication of Abraham and Ishmael was restricted to them.”

The Imam: “The tradition handed down from the Prophet [Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾] is that he said, ‘I am the answer of my ancestor Abraham’s [supplication].’

The Imam: He who adheres in allegiance with true devotion to this [chosen] community [i.e., the Imams of the House of Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾] which God describes in His Book is counted as of it; but he who goes against it [i.e., goes against the Imams from the Ahl al-Bayt], in not accepting its pre-eminence, is of the community to which Muḥammad was sent and which did not accept [him].”

— Al-Qadi al-Nuʿman, The Pillars of Islam, vol. 1, 43-45 (translation modified and reformatted).

The foregoing explanation is largely self-explanatory and requires little further elaboration beyond the commentary already provided. Nevertheless, for a deeper understanding and appreciation of the intellectual (‘aqli) principle underlying this argument, we may also benefit from a commentary (tafsir) on Qurʾan 2:129 by the renowned Muslim scholar ‘Abd al-Karim al-Shahrastani (d. 1153) — revered as a Sunni theologian and also identified as a secret Ismaili da‘i — in which he rationally expounds and supports the above interpretations given by the Imams:

The Muslims say regarding Ibrahim, Isma‘il, and their pure descendants that islam (submission) is of two types: 1) islam as a principle in which both believers and hypocrites participate and 2) islam as perfection, which is the most perfect of the ranks of spiritual wayfaring, as He — the Exalted — said regarding Ibrahim: “Submit (aslim). He [Ibrahim] said: ‘I have submitted (aslamtu) to the Lord of the worlds’” [2:131]. And He said to the Chosen Messenger: “Verily, the religion with God is submission (islam)…” [3:19].

The supplication that flowed upon the tongue of the Friend of God [i.e., Ibrahim] and his son Isma‘il has the meaning of perfection of the ranks of the believers and the Messengers: “Our Lord! Make us submitters (muslimayn) to you” [2:128].

And just as the two of them sought the islam that is perfection for their own souls, the two of them also sought this same islam for some of their descendants from the progeny of Isma‘il… Thus, He said here: “And from our descendants a submitted community (ummatan muslimatan)” [2:128].

This necessitates the particularization of that in the descendants of Isma‘il. Thus, no time period from the beginning to the end is empty of the ‘submitted descendants’ [who embody] the islam of perfection like the islam of Ibrahim and Isma‘il. This is because it is impossible for the islam [that Ibrahim and Isma‘il] sought for themselves — the islam qua perfection — to be neglected and the islam they sought for their descendants — the islam qua principle.

Just as God answered their supplication with respect to themselves such that He provided them with that islam (submission) that is the perfection of the human state, likewise He answered their supplication with respect to their descendants such that He provided them with that islam that is the perfection of the human state perpetually within all time periods and all situations.

— ʿAbd al-Karim al-Shahrastani, Mafatih al-Asrar wa-Masabih al-Abrar, vol. 2, 619–620; translated by Khalil Andani.10

Coming in Part 2: Building on the discussion of Qurʾan 2:128–129, we will examine Qurʾan 2:143, 3:104, 3:110, 7:181, and 22:78 — verses that Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾ identifies as referring to this same distinct ummah muslimah. Together, they portray the Imams as the “best,” “just,” and “mediating” community, entrusted with calling humanity to the good and bearing witness over it.

Ya ‘Ali Madad,
Ismaili Gnosis
August 4, 2026
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“Whether you are giving to an Imamat institution or to any other organization which works for good, these are the same in my eyes. All giving is an act of faith. All giving is of spiritual benefit.”

— Imam Shah Rahim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾
(Dallas, Texas, November 10, 2025)

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An Invitation to Readers and Seekers of Ismaili Gnosis

Among the many profound concepts explored within the Ismaili intellectual tradition, few are as central—or as spiritually transformative—as the Universal Intellect (al-ʿaql al-kulli). This post is an invitation to contemplate that luminous reality through poetry, scholarship, the Qurʾan, and Ismaili taʾwil, and to discover why generations of Ismaili thinkers have identified it with such names as the Divine Pen, the Angel closest to God, the Supreme Veil, the Great Door, the reality of the Praise (al-hamd) which belongs to Allah, the Lord of the worlds (al-hamdu lillahi rabbi al-ʿalamin), and the Primordial Light (nur) manifested in the Prophet and the Imam, through which the human soul journeys toward the recognition (maʿrifa) of God.

The inspiration for the poem that follows came while I was reading Dr. Khalil Andani’s remarkable article, “Metaphysics of Muhammad”. Although several of its concepts and expressions found their way into these rhyming lines, the poem should not be read as a poetic summary of Dr. Andani’s carefully researched seventy-seven-page study. Indeed, it never explicitly mentions the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾, much less attempts to expound upon the profound metaphysical themes developed in his article. Rather, Dr. Andani’s work served as one of the inspirations behind the poem, while the Qurʾan itself accompanied and guided me throughout the writing process.

Subscribers who continue below will find much more than the poem itself. Included are an abridged abstract of Dr. Andani’s peer-reviewed article, carefully selected excerpts, a link to download the complete study, the Qurʾanic passages that inspired both the writing of the poem and my later reflections upon it, together with selected examples of ʿAllamah Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai’s Ismaili taʾwil—spiritually inspired commentaries on those very Qurʾanic verses that illuminate their inner meanings. The post concludes by inviting readers to return to the poem in light of these teachings, allowing its symbols, allusions, and metaphysical imagery to be appreciated with fresh understanding.

Why should Ismailis devote time to reflecting upon the significance of the Universal Intellect in their spiritual lives? The 49th Ismaili Imam, Mawlana Shah Karim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾ Aga Khan IV, offers part of the answer:

“The Divine Intellect, ʿAql-i Kull, both transcends and informs the human intellect... It is the light of intellect which distinguishes the complete human being from the human animal...”

— Mawlana Shah Karim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾ Aga Khan IV, Aga Khan University Hospital Inauguration Ceremony, Karachi, Pakistan, November 11, 1985.

If you are already a supporting subscriber, I warmly invite you to continue below and enjoy the complete post. If you are reading as a free subscriber, I hope you will consider upgrading your subscription. As a supporting subscriber, you will gain access to the complete poem together with its accompanying scholarly commentary, Qurʾanic reflections, and Ismaili taʾwil, while also helping to sustain the continued publication of essays, translations, poetry, and research dedicated to the Ismaili intellectual and spiritual tradition.

With prayers and anticipation for your inspired reading,

Khayal ‘Aly
July 3, 2026

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“The colours of our family are, as you know, Red and Green. The reason being that we represent both the (offices of) Shāh [Imām] and Pīr. The Shāh was Ḥusayn and the Pīr was Ḥasan. Ḥasan had the Pīr’s colour of Green, but Ḥusayn’s martyrdom was so enormous in events and was so opposed to even the smallest laws of war that the colour of his Holy Blood, namely Red, was accepted with the Green of the Prophet’s flag as a souvenir and remembrance of that terrible day.”

— Imām Sulṭān Muḥammad Shāh
Āgā Khān III

The tenth day of Muḥarram, known as the Day of ‘Āshūra’ is when the Battle of Karbala took place – in which Imām al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī, the second hereditary Imām of the Shī‘ī Muslims, along with his family and supporters, was brutally massacred by the armies of Yazīd ibn Mu‘āwiya ibn Abī Sufyān.

The Imām and the Adversary

“When I ask you to read Kisso (the account of the events at Karbala) it is not because those who read it will go to Paradise, but that you may ponder over it and know the unbelievers fought us. These Prophets and Imāms knew what was going to happen, yet we are not allowed to reveal the mysteries of the Unseen (ghayb).”

— Imām Āgā Shāh ‘Alī Shāh Āgā Khān II, (transl. Rai Gulamali Kassam Shivji, Calgary November 1989)

The Battle of Karbala, from the esoteric perspective, was the manifestation of the opposition that takes place in every age and time between the forces of the Imām of the Time and the forces of his Adversity (ḍidd). Just as the Imām of the Time is the inheritor of Haḍrat Adam and the vicegerent of God on earth, the Adversary (ḍidd) is the inheritor of Iblīs and the devil (shayṭān) among human beings.

In this article, we present the historical (exoteric) and esoteric understanding of the Battle of Karbala according to which Ismaili Muslims are instructed to “mourn for the ma‘rifah of the Imam of the Time”.

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Earlier this month, on June 3, 2026, the Ismaili Jamat commemorated Eid-i Ghadir. To mark this blessed occasion, we present — albeit somewhat belatedly — an edited and expanded version of a 2005 handout by Khayal ‘Aly entitled Understanding Our Holy Du‘a: Part III.

For ease of reading, the original has been divided into two parts. This first installment reflects on the event of Ghadir Khumm as alluded to in Qur’an 5:67, a verse recited in Part III of the Ismaili Du‘a. Drawing upon other Qur’anic verses, Prophetic traditions, and even the poetry of the thirteenth-century Ismaili poet Nizari Quhistani, it explores the deeper significance of the Prophet’s proclamation at Ghadir Khumm and its connection to the covenant of Imamat, Divine Favour, and salvific guidance.

A forthcoming second installment will continue to explore Part III of the Ismaili Du‘a, offering further reflections and connections drawn from the Qur’an, Hadith, and the Ismaili intellectual tradition.

The Ismaili Du‘a, Part III: Reflections and Connections — Part 1

We begin Part III of our Holy Du‘a, like all other parts of the Du‘a, in the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful (bismi’llahi’r-rahmani’r-rahim). In doing so, we fulfill a command given by Allah in the first sura of the Qur’an revealed to Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾. In Surat al-‘Alaq, God proclaims:

“Read in the Name of your Lord Who created.”

iqra’ bi-smi rabbika alladhi khalaq

— Qur’an 96:1

Following the recitation of the Basmala, we recite a verse from Surat al-Ma’ida that holds profound significance for all Shi‘i Muslims. Allah Most High commands the Prophet:

“O Messenger! Convey what has been revealed to you from your Lord. If you do not do so, then you have not conveyed His message. And Allah will protect you from the people.”

ya ayyuha’r-rasulu balligh ma unzila ilayka mir-rabbik^a; wa-i’l-lam taf‘al fa-ma ballaghta risalatahu wa’llahu ya‘ṣimuka mina’n-nas

— Qur’an 5:67

Several important points emerge from this verse:

• The Messenger is commanded to proclaim a matter of exceptional importance.

• The significance of this matter is such that failing to convey it would be tantamount to failing to convey the divine message itself.

• The completion and fulfillment of the Prophet’s mission are made contingent upon the delivery of this message.

• The verse indicates that the Prophet had concerns regarding how some people might react to its proclamation.

According to our fourth Imam, Mawlana Muhammad al-Baqir⁽ᶜ⁾, the Prophet's concern arose because the message he was commanded to proclaim involved the clear and public designation of his cousin and son-in-law, Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾, as the mawla of the Muslim community. The Prophet feared that some people might interpret this appointment as an act of familial favoritism. Yet Allah would not allow this crucial declaration to remain unspoken, and He reassured the Prophet with His promise of divine protection.

For this reason, according to the Shi‘i understanding, the famous event of Ghadir Khumm represents the Prophet’s response to the command contained in Qur’an 5:67.1 After receiving this revelation, the Prophet halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm and publicly proclaimed the authority of Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as the mawla of the believers before the assembled community.

That the event of Ghadir Khumm itself took place is accepted by both Shi‘i and Sunni historians and is recorded by even the most authoritative Sunni sources.2 The two traditions differ, however, in their interpretation of what the Prophet intended by the term mawla.

Drawing upon early Shi‘i sources, Arzina R. Lalani summarizes the Prophet’s declaration at Ghadir Khumm as follows:3

After completing the congregational prayer, the Prophet asked:

“Who has the greatest claim over you?” (man awla bikum).

The people replied that God and His Messenger knew best. The Prophet then said:

“Do I not have a greater claim upon you than you have upon yourselves, according to what God, the Exalted, has said: ‘The Prophet has a greater claim (awla) upon the believers than their own selves’” (Qur’an 33:6)?

They replied:

“Yes, O Messenger of God.”

After repeating this question three times and making God a witness to their agreement, the Prophet took the hand of Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾, raised it before the people, and declared:

“Whomsoever I am his mawla, ‘Ali is his mawla” (man kuntu mawlahu fa-‘Ali mawlahu).

Two important points emerge from this celebrated Hadith of Ghadir:

1. The Prophet first established his own authority over the believers by invoking Qur’an 33:6, which teaches that he possesses a greater claim upon them than they have upon themselves.

2. Having established this authority, the Prophet then singled out and honored Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ by raising his hand before the people and teaching that whoever recognizes the Prophet as his mawla should also recognize Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as his mawla.

The Hadith of Ghadir continues. After proclaiming Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as the mawla, the Prophet declared:

“O God, help whoever helps him, oppose whoever opposes him, support whoever supports him, forsake whoever forsakes him, and turn the Light wherever he turns.”

Upon hearing this declaration, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab said:

“Congratulations to you, O ‘Ali! You have become the mawla of every believing man and woman.”4

Two additional observations may be drawn from this narration:

• The Prophet's prayer highlights the unique station of Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾. Particularly striking is the supplication that God should “turn the Light wherever he turns,” suggesting a profound connection between Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ and divine guidance. From an Ismaili perspective, this prayer may also be understood as alluding to the continuing presence of divine light and guidance through the institution of Imamat.

• We also see that ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, who would later become the second Caliph of Islam, acknowledged the significance of the Prophet's declaration and congratulated Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ upon becoming the mawla of all believing men and women.

As noted above, Shi‘i and Sunni Muslims differ in their understanding of what the Prophet intended by calling Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ the mawla. The term possesses a wide range of meanings and can be understood in several ways, including:5

• Friend
• Companion
• Supporter
• Beloved
• Protector
• Master
• Lord

Generally speaking, the Sunni interpretation maintains that the Prophet’s declaration at Ghadir Khumm identified Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as a beloved companion, friend, and supporter of the Muslim community. The Shi‘i interpretation does not deny these qualities. Rather, it maintains that, in the context of Ghadir Khumm, the term mawla carries a deeper significance, particularly its meanings of master, protector, and one invested with walaya (spiritual authority). This understanding is further strengthened by the fact that mawla and walaya derive from the same Arabic root.6

Shi‘i Muslims base this interpretation upon two principal considerations:

1. The Context in Which the Word Mawla Was Used

In the Hadith of Ghadir, the Prophet employed the term mawla immediately after citing Qur’an 33:6:

“The Prophet has a greater claim (awla) upon the believers than their own selves.”

The words awla, mawla, and walaya all derive from the same Arabic root. According to the Shi‘i interpretation, this linguistic connection is highly significant. By invoking the concept of awla, the Prophet first established his own authority and prior claim over the believers. His subsequent declaration that “‘Ali is his mawla” is therefore understood to indicate that Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ inherited a corresponding position of authority and guardianship within the community.7

2. The Position and Status of the Prophet

The Prophet described Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as the mawla only after first affirming, three times, his own authority over the believers. This sequence is of great significance.

The Prophet was certainly a friend to the believers, but his relationship to them was not limited to friendship. He was also God’s Messenger, guide, teacher, judge, and the divinely appointed authority over the Muslim community. Concerning the Prophet’s authority, Allah says:

“But no, by your Lord! They can have no faith until they make you judge in all disputes between them, and find in themselves no resistance to your decisions, but submit with full acceptance.”

— Qur’an 4:65

From the Shi‘i perspective, therefore, the Prophet’s declaration at Ghadir Khumm cannot be reduced to a statement of friendship alone. Rather, it points to a continuing authority that would remain present within the Muslim community after the Prophet’s departure from this world.

For this reason, Shi‘i Muslims believe that Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ and the Imams from his progeny inherited the Prophet’s spiritual authority. While the Imams were not prophets and did not bring a new revelation, they possessed the divinely ordained authority of walaya and served as the rightful guides of the community. It is in this sense that they are understood to be the mawla of the believers.

This understanding is further reinforced by the famous Hadith al-Thaqalayn (“The Two Weighty Things”), a tradition transmitted in both Shi‘i and Sunni collections of hadith. Shortly before his death, the Prophet declared:

“Verily, I am leaving with you two precious things, the Book of God and my progeny, my ahl al-bayt; for as long as you cling to these two, you will never go astray; and truly they will not be parted from each other until they join me at the Hawd [a pool of Paradise, identified with al-Kawthar].”8

According to the Hadith al-Thaqalayn:

• After the Prophet, there remain two authoritative sources of guidance:

  1. The Holy Qur’an

  2. The Imam of the Time from the ahl al-bayt

• Although they may appear to be two distinct sources, in reality they are inseparable. The Prophet teaches that the Qur’an and the Imam are joined together and can never be separated from one another. This same principle is expressed in another tradition, found in both Shi‘i and Sunni sources, in which the Prophet said:

  “‘Ali is with the Qur’an and the Qur’an is with ‘Ali. They shall never separate until they come to me at the [paradisal] Pond (al-hawd).”9

• The Prophet’s statement in the Hadith al-Thaqalayn — “for as long as you cling to these two, you will never go astray” — also brings to mind another well-known tradition found in both Shi‘i and Sunni sources: the Hadith al-Safina (Tradition of the Ark). Speaking about the ahl al-bayt, the Prophet said:

  “Indeed, their likeness is that of Noah’s Ark. Whoever boarded it was saved, and whoever remained behind was drowned.”10

Together, these traditions emphasize a central theme: right guidance and salvation are attained through adherence to both the Qur’an and the divinely appointed guide from the ahl al-bayt.

We have seen that Qur’an 5:67, which we recite in Part III of our Du‘a, alludes directly to the event of Ghadir Khumm. Yet it also calls to mind a wider body of Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions concerning the authority and guidance of the Imam.

Imam Muhammad al-Baqir⁽ᶜ⁾ teaches that after the declaration at Ghadir Khumm, the following verse was revealed:

“This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed My favour (ni‘mat) upon you, and chosen for you Islam as your religion.”11

— Qur’an 5:3

According to the Shi‘i interpretation of this verse:

• It was only after the designation of Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as the mawla that the religion was perfected. This further demonstrates the immense significance of the proclamation commanded by Allah in Qur’an 5:67.

• The declaration of Hazrat ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾ as mawla is understood to be a ni‘mat — a Divine Favour bestowed upon the believers.

• After this Divine Favour was manifested, Allah chose Islam as the name of the religion. In this interpretation, Islam signifies both peace and submission, because in every age one must submit to the mawla, or Imam of the Time, through whom believers are guided in the practice of their faith and enabled to live in spiritual peace (salam).

The word “completed” in Qur’an 5:3 — “completed My favour upon you” — should not be understood in the sense of something that has ended or ceased. One should not imagine that the Divine Favour bestowed at Ghadir belonged only to that historical moment.

Rather, the Divine Favour is complete because it remains continuous, uninterrupted, and ever-present. It is a favour that endures throughout the ages, sustained by Allah, the Ever-Living and Self-Subsisting One (al-Hayy al-Qayyum).

For this reason, there must always be a present and living Imam in every age through whom God’s favour is manifested and made complete.

The institution of Imamat is a Divine Favour bestowed upon humanity because, according to the Holy Qur’an, the Imams themselves are among those upon whom God bestows His favour, authority, and inheritance:

“And We desired to bestow favour upon those who were oppressed in the earth, and to make them Imams and to make them the heirs, and to establish them in the land….”

— Qur’an 28:5–6

Several themes emerge from this verse:

• Throughout history, enemies of the faith have sought to oppress the Imams and their family. One need only recall the tragedy of Karbala, where the Prophet's grandson, Imam Husayn⁽ᶜ⁾, together with members of his family and companions, was martyred.

• The Imams are the heirs of the Prophet and of one another. This demonstrates the continuity of the Imamat within the lineage of the ahl al-bayt.

• It is the Imam of the Time who is granted Divine Favour and true authority, whether this reality is recognized by many or only by a few who acknowledge the Imam as their spiritual guide and father.

The Holy Qur’an, which serves as guidance for believers in every age, frequently speaks of Allah’s favour (ni‘mat). The following verse warns of those who exchanged this Divine Favour for ingratitude:

“Have you not seen those who exchanged Allah’s favour for ingratitude and caused their people to descend into the Abode of Loss?”

— Qur’an 14:28

Two reflections follow from this verse:

• Those who followed such ungrateful leaders deprived themselves of the benefit of Allah’s favour, entering the “Abode of Loss” rather than the “Abode of Peace” (Dar al-Salam).

• From an Ismaili perspective, those who disregarded the Prophet’s declaration at Ghadir Khumm — man kuntu mawlahu fa-‘Ali mawlahu (“Whomsoever I am his mawla, ‘Ali is his mawla”) — cut themselves off from the guidance of the Imams who, according to Qur’an 21:73, are divinely appointed to guide by God’s command (amr).12

Therefore, the same sura in which Allah declares that He has completed His favour (5:3) also reminds believers:

“And remember Allah’s favour upon you and His covenant (mithaq) by which He bound you firmly, when you said: ‘We hear and we obey’; and be conscious of Allah. Surely Allah knows what is within the hearts.”

— Qur’an 5:7

This verse invites us to reflect on three related themes:

• It is possible to forget or become unmindful of Allah’s favour. This warning may apply both to those who reject the institution of Imamat altogether and to those who acknowledge the Imam as their mawla but fail to live according to his guidance and farmans (decrees).

• God’s ni‘mat (favour) is linked to His mithaq (covenant), suggesting that the Divine Favour is inseparable from the Imam, to whom the believer pledges allegiance (bay‘a) and through whom one enters into the sacred covenant with God.

• The Ismaili da‘is, who invited others to recognize the Imam of the Time, used the term mithaq to designate the oath taken by an Ismaili. Through this oath, the believer promises obedience to God, the Messenger, and the Ulu al-Amr (“those vested with authority”; Qur’an 4:59), while also undertaking to preserve the trust placed in him or her by safeguarding the inner meanings (batin) of the faith. Such discretion was especially important during periods when the Imams and their followers faced persecution.13

Verse 5:7 speaks of the covenant (mithaq) as that “by which He bound you firmly.” This same image of being firmly bound to Allah appears in Qur’an 3:103, which refers to the “Rope of Allah” as a source of Divine favour, grace, and guidance:

“And hold fast, all together, to the Rope of Allah, and do not be divided. Remember Allah’s favour upon you: you were enemies and He joined your hearts together in love, so that by His grace you became brothers. You were on the brink of a pit of fire and He saved you from it. Thus does Allah make His signs clear to you, that you may be guided.”

— Qur’an 3:103

This verse sheds light on several important themes:

• According to the Shi‘i interpretation, the “Rope of Allah” refers to the institution of Imamat. It is the Imam of the Time who keeps his murids (covenanted followers) connected to Allah through his love, hidaya (guidance), ta‘lim (teaching), ta’wil (esoteric interpretation), and baraka (blessings). The “Rope of Allah” is therefore understood as a symbol of the continuous Light of Imamat and the living bond between God and humanity. Otherwise, there is no physical rope descending from the heavens by which humanity is bound to God.

• Shi‘i Muslims may also agree with Sunni Muslims that the “Rope of Allah” refers to the Holy Qur’an. There is no contradiction between these interpretations, for according to the Hadith al-Thaqalayn, the Prophet left behind both the Holy Qur’an and his progeny, the Imams. Since the two are inseparably joined, they constitute a single reality of divine guidance.

• According to this verse, it is by means of the “Rope of Allah” that one is saved from the brink of the “pit of fire,” just as it is through Noah’s Ark that one is saved from the flood. In the Ismaili interpretation, both the Ark and the Rope symbolize the Light and Guidance of Imamat.
  
  The thirteenth-century Persian Ismaili poet Nizari Quhistani beautifully expresses this symbolism:14

  
  Finally, the Noah of the time
  led me to the Ark of Guidance
  and I found myself saved
  from the billowing deluge.
  
  When I firmly held the Rope of God
  with willing submission,
  I found deliverance
  from the pit of disappointment.
  ...
  Salvation is in the Imam of the time;
  I found the root of faith
  in obedience to his commands
  and prohibitions.

  
  I gave up everything except
  ‘offspring, one from the other’15
  when I found the
  permanent Imamate in them.

• The “Rope of Allah” is also the means by which the community remains united. When believers hold firmly to the Rope of Allah, they are bound not only to God but also to one another in a bond of brotherhood and sisterhood. For this reason, all Muslims, regardless of sect, should regard one another as brothers and sisters, united by their reverence for the Holy Qur’an.

• Ismaili Muslims, however, recognize both the Holy Qur’an and the living Imamat. As spiritual children of the same Imam, they share a unique bond of brotherhood and sisterhood rooted in a common spiritual lineage.

The Shi‘i Ismaili Imams have frequently reminded the Jamat of the importance of unity among brothers and sisters in faith. In a farman delivered in Karachi on December 13, 1964, the 49th Imam, Mawlana Shah Karim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾ Aga Khan IV, explicitly referred to the “Rope of Imamat” and explained its role in guiding the community:

“For hundreds of years, My spiritual children have been guided by the Rope of Imamat. You have looked to the Imam of the Age for advice and help in all matters, and through your Imam’s immense love and affection for his spiritual children, his Noor has indicated to you where and in which direction you must turn, so as to obtain spiritual and worldly satisfaction.”16

We have seen that Qur’an 5:67 is far more than a reference to a single historical event. Beginning with the proclamation of Mawlana ‘Ali⁽ᶜ⁾’s walaya (authority) at Ghadir Khumm, it leads us to a deeper understanding of the institution of Imamat and of the themes of Divine Favour, covenant, and guidance that are woven throughout the Qur’an and the Prophetic tradition. Together, these teachings reveal the profound significance of the message that Allah commanded His Messenger to proclaim and the enduring role of the Imam in guiding the faithful through every age.

As we conclude, let us recall the blessed words of Qur’an 5:67 recited at the beginning of Part III of our Holy Du‘a:

The next time we recite or listen to Part III of our Holy Du‘a, beginning with these divinely revealed words, may we do so with a deeper sense of gratitude, conviction, and understanding, mindful of the great Divine Favour bestowed upon the ummah at Ghadir Khumm and perpetuated through the living institution of Imamat.

As Ismaili Muslims, we continue to recognize and follow a present, living Imam, Mawlana Imam Shah Rahim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾ Aga Khan V, through whom the light of Imamat continues to guide, nurture, and unite the Jamat in every age. By holding fast to the Rope of Allah and boarding the Ark of Salvation, we reaffirm our allegiance to the Imam of the Time and our commitment to the spiritual path illuminated by our Mawla for his murids.

Ya ‘Aly Madad,
Khayal ‘Aly
June 12, 2026

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“Whether you are giving to an Imamat institution or to any other organization which works for good, these are the same in my eyes. All giving is an act of faith. All giving is of spiritual benefit.”

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In Case You Missed It

NOTES

On June 6, 2026 at 1pm MST / 2pm CST / 3pm EST, Dr. Khalil Andani will present a commentary on the recent Farmans of Mawlana Hazar Imam made in Eastern Canada. He will focus on the ideas of Tawhid (unity of God), Intellect, Free Will, and Imamology in connection with the Ismaili intellectual tradition of philosophy and theology.

Register for this Zoom webinar here: https://us06web.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN_ratPSO0qRw6Ykg_MJmALtg

Speaker Bio: Dr. Khalil Andani is a Co-Founder of Ismaili Gnosis. He is a tenured Associate Professor of Religion at Augustana College and an Ismaili Muslim philosopher of religion. He specializes in the study of Islamic philosophy and theology and Ismaili history and thought. He has published extensively in various Islamic studies journals and books including IIS publications and regularly speaks at academic conferences. Dr. Andani holds a Ph.D. and two Masters degrees in Islamic Studies from Harvard University.

Access Full Content
on Ismaili Gnosis

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full access to Ismaili Gnosis?

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Support Our Mission

“Whether you are giving to an Imamat institution or to any other organization which works for good, these are the same in my eyes. All giving is an act of faith. All giving is of spiritual benefit.”

— Imam Shah Rahim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾
(Dallas, Texas, November 10, 2025)

Ismaili Gnosis is a U.S.-registered 501(c)(3) nonprofit. Your voluntary donation supports research and educational content and is separate from paid Ismaili Gnosis subscriptions offered through Substack.

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In Case You Missed It

“Do not forget that our branch of Islam is an esoteric branch of Islam. Esoteric means that what is written is there, but its meaning is not there to everyone. It is there only to those who are part of our Jamat. And it is important, therefore, that if you learn parts of the Qur’an, you should be able to explain the esoteric meaning of those parts. . . .

If you recite parts of the Qur’an, certain words must represent to you a concept. If you study the Qur’an-e-Sharif, this concept will become well known to you and through you to the Jamat at large. This takes many years of study, I do not want you to think that this can be learnt easily or without hard work.”

— Imam Shah Karim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾
Bombay, November 22, 19671

‘Id al-Adha commemorates one of the most profound and symbolically rich narratives in the Qur’an: the sacrifice of Hazrat Ibrahim (Abraham)⁽ᶜ⁾ and his son Hazrat Ismail (Ishmael)⁽ᶜ⁾. In Sura 37, Ibrahim⁽ᶜ⁾ sees in a vision that God commands him to sacrifice his beloved son. Father and son both submit with complete faith and trust in God’s wisdom. Yet at the decisive moment, Ismail⁽ᶜ⁾ is ransomed and replaced with a “momentous sacrifice,” traditionally understood by many Muslims to be a ram.

In the Ismaili tradition, however, this story is not confined to its outward or historical form. According to the teachings and farmans of the Imams, believers are called to seek the batini ta’wil — the inner spiritual meaning and deeper wisdom contained within the Qur’anic narrative.

For this reason, Ismaili thinkers and sages have never understood the story in a purely literal sense. The true meaning of Ibrahim⁽ᶜ⁾’s sacrifice cannot be that God commanded His Prophet to kill an innocent child. Such an interpretation would contradict the Qur’an’s own affirmation of the sanctity of life and the divine prohibition against taking innocent life:

Rather, the narrative points toward a deeper spiritual reality — one that accords with the Qur’an, with God-given intellect (‘aql), and with the timeless ethical truths at the heart of revelation. In accordance with the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾ and the Shi‘i Imams⁽ᶜ⁾, the exoteric (zahir) aspect of the Qur’an contains not only one but multiple levels of esoteric (batin) meaning — spiritual and intellectual truths (haqa’iq) that lie beneath the outward wording of its verses and stories.

In this first part on the Ismaili interpretation (ta'wil) of ‘Id al-Adha, we will focus on one esoteric interpretation that reveals and affirms a fundamental pillar of religion. In part two, we will, insha'llah, explore additional layers of the batini ta'wil that further unveil the depth of the sacrifice undertaken by Hazrat Ismail⁽ᶜ⁾ — and what that sacrifice may mean for those who wish to spiritually observe and personally participate in the great “festival of sacrifice” by following the one straight path (sirat al-mustaqim) — the blessed path of those upon whom God bestows His spiritual bounties (1:6–7).

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Introduction: Scope and Structure of This Study

The Qur’an is revered by over a billion Muslims as the divine revelation to humanity. During the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾, it existed primarily as recitation — proclaimed, taught, and interpreted by him in response to lived circumstances. As the divinely guided Messenger, he functioned as its living expositor, through whom revelation became immediate guidance for the community. There was not yet a fixed written canon in circulation in the later sense, nor a developed class of scholars (‘ulama’) offering competing interpretations.

Over time, however, approaches to the Qur’an have often emphasized literal and outward readings. Against this background, this study argues that the Qur’an contains deeper, esoteric (batin) meanings that require interpretation through ta’wil — a form of authoritative, divinely inspired “revelatory hermeneutics”.

This work is structured in three parts:

Part I (this section) establishes the necessity of ta’wil from the Qur’an itself and from classical Ismaili and wider Islamic intellectual traditions. It begins by clarifying the Qur’an’s prophetic mode of communication through the concept of the Prophet as the “Speaking Qur’an,” followed by ten Qur’anic and philosophical arguments for why ta’wil is necessary for a coherent understanding of revelation.

Part II will examine the question of legitimate access to ta’wil. While the existence of inner meaning is widely acknowledged across Islamic traditions, these traditions differ concerning its authoritative sources and transmission. This section will explore the relationship between ta’wil, interpretive authority, and spiritual guidance after the Prophet Muhammad, with particular attention to the Shi‘i understanding of the Imam as the inheritor and authoritative interpreter of the Qur’an’s inner meanings.

Part III will turn to the Shi‘i Ismaili tradition, presenting ta’wil as a historically continuous and living practice. It outlines how the Imam and related intellectual traditions have preserved, taught, and enacted ta’wil across time, extending into the present through both institutional and intellectual expressions.

Taken together, the study moves from necessity, to authority, to living practice — showing ta’wil not as a later interpretive development, but as something rooted in the structure of revelation itself and sustained through authoritative transmission across history.

Before turning to the arguments, it is first necessary to clarify the Qur’an’s prophetic mode of communication — namely, the understanding of the Prophet as the “Speaking Qur’an,” in whom revelation is not only transmitted but made intelligible in lived reality.

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Introduction

This article presents ten historically grounded observations about the Qur’an, drawn from modern scholarship and early Islamic sources. Taken together, they invite a reassessment of several common assumptions about the Qur’anic text—its form, its language, its self-description, and the concepts it employs.

Rather than approaching the Qur’an as a fixed, self-contained book with fully settled meanings and later theological categories already in place, these observations suggest a more complex picture. In the Prophet’s lifetime, it existed primarily as oral recitation, with writing playing a secondary role as a means of preserving and aiding memorization rather than forming a compiled book. It emerges as a revelation unfolding over time, engaging its audience directly, drawing on a shared late antique religious environment, and consistently calling for reflection, interpretation, and intellectual engagement.

Ten Overlooked Facts About the Qur’an

“The Qur’an’s kitab is not a book in the generally accepted sense of a closed corpus. Rather, it is the symbol of a process of continuing divine engagement with human beings—an engagement that is rich and varied, yet so direct and specific in its address that it could never be comprehended in a fixed canon nor confined between two covers… The logic of the Qur’an’s own approach demonstrates the impossibility of understanding al-kitab as a fixed text, a book.”

— Daniel A. Madigan, The Qur’an’s Self-Image, 165.

1. The term “qur’an” refers to recitation, not a written book

In the Qur’an itself, the term qur’an refers to “recitation,” not a bound written book in the later sense. The idea of a standardized, fixed Qur’anic text is a later historical development.

In its earliest usage, qur’an refers to individual revelations recited by Prophet Muhammad in specific situations. This is reflected in the way the term appears within the Qur’an, often in a form that suggests spoken delivery rather than a written object.

The Qur’an also challenges the expectation that revelation should come as a single, complete written book. Instead, it responds to this expectation directly:

“And even if We had sent down to you, [O Muhammad], a written scripture on a page and they touched it with their hands, the disbelievers would say, ‘This is not but obvious magic.’”
— Qur’an 6:7

“The People of the Kitab ask you to bring down to them a book from the heaven…”
— Qur’an 4:153

“And those who disbelieve say, ‘Why was the recitation (qur’an) not sent down to him all at once?’ Thus [it is] that We may strengthen thereby your heart. And We have arranged it in order.”
— Qur’an 25:32

As Daniel Madigan explains, the Qur’an presents revelation not as a single completed text, but as a gradual and responsive process:

“The Qur’an comes only… responsively… in installments according to situations and events in order that the Prophet will be able to address God’s response to whatever objection is being raised, whatever question is being asked (q 25:33).

In this context they [Qur’an commentators] quote q 17:106: “…and in the form of a recitation that we have divided up (faraqnahu) that you might recite it to the people at intervals (‘ala mukthin), and we have indeed sent it down.”

In rejecting the claim that it should be sent down “as a single complete pronouncement” the Qur’an is asserting its fluidity and its responsiveness to situations. It is refusing to behave as an already closed and canonized text but insists on being the authoritative voice of God in the present.”

— Daniel Madigan, “Book” (section: “The Qur’an as kitab”), Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, vol. 1, 250.

2. The Qur’an emerged as an oral, dialogical revelation in real time

The word qur’an means “recitation” and originally referred to oral proclamations delivered by Prophet Muhammad over roughly 23 years. These recitations addressed different audiences and responded to specific situations, questions, and debates.

In its original setting, the Qur’an functioned as an ongoing, responsive revelation rather than a fixed written text or closed literary composition. It unfolded gradually through speech, not as a precompiled book.

As Angelika Neuwirth explains:

“The Qur’an in its emergent phase is not a pre-meditated, fixed compilation…but a still-mobile text reflecting an oral theological-philosophical debate between diverse interlocutors…” (p. 142)

The oral Qur’an… may be compared to a telephone conversation where the speech of only one party is audible, yet the unheard speech of the other is roughly deducible from the audible one. Indeed, the social concerns and theological questions of the listeners are widely reflected in the Qur’an text pronounced by the Prophet’s voice.” (p. 144)

“What is striking here is that the Qur’an did not subscribe to the concept of a written manifestation of scripture but established a new image, that of an ‘oral scripture’… Daniel Madigan justly claims that ‘nothing about the Qur’an suggests that it conceives of itself as identical with the kitab (the celestial book)…’ that is to say the Qur’an in no phase of its development strove to become a closed scriptural corpus.” (p. 145)

— Angelika Neuwirth, “Two Faces of the Qur’an: Qur’an and Mushaf,” Oral Tradition 25/1 (2010): 142-145.

3. The Qur’an does not claim to exhaust God’s Word or guidance

The Qur’an does not present itself as the complete or exhaustive expression of God’s speech or guidance. Instead, it repeatedly emphasizes that God’s words cannot be fully contained within any human language, text, or written form. At the same time, it expands the idea of divine “signs” (ayat) beyond the Qur’anic text itself, directing attention to the wider world—both the cosmos and the human being—as ongoing arenas in which divine communication is expressed and reflected.

This idea is expressed in the Qur’an as follows:

“If whatever trees upon the earth were pens and the sea [was ink], replenished thereafter by seven [more] seas, the Words of God would not be exhausted…”
— Qur’an 31:27

“If the sea were ink for [writing] the Words of my Lord, the sea would be exhausted before the Words of my Lord were exhausted…”
— Qur’an 18:109

“The sending down of the Kitab is from God, the Exalted in Might, the Wise. Indeed, within the heavens and the earth are Signs (ayat) for the believers… in the creation of yourselves… the alternation of night and day and [in] what God sends down from the sky… are Signs for a people who reason.”
— Qur’an 45:2–6

“And on the earth are Signs for the certain, and in your own souls. Will you not then see?”
— Qur’an 51:20–21

4. Prophet Muhammad did not produce a written “book” of the Qur’an

During the Prophet’s lifetime, the Qur’an existed primarily as recitation. His companions memorized these revelations and wrote portions of them on materials such as parchment, bone, and wood, but the Prophet himself did not compile them into a single written volume or present them as a fixed book.

Modern scholarship supports this view. As Gregor Schoeler, former Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Basel, notes:

“The revelations remained in a state of flux during the Prophet’s lifetime: verses and surahs were added, while others were “abrogated.” It is thus hardly conceivable that before his death the Prophet established a final edition of the revealed text….”

— Gregor Schoeler, “The Codification of the Qur’an,” in The Qur’an in Context, 784.

A similar conclusion is reached by Daniel Madigan:

“The text at the time of the Prophet’s death [did not exist] in a physical form… The scraps of wood, leather and pottery… indicate that the Prophet did not have in mind producing the kind of scroll or codex that was characteristic of Jewish and Christian use in other places.”

— Daniel Madigan, Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, vol. 1, 249.

5. The Qur’an was compiled after the Prophet’s death into a standardized text

The Qur’an, as it exists today, was compiled after the death of Prophet Muhammad and later standardized under the Caliph ‘Uthman (d. 656). Early Islamic sources describe this process as motivated by concern that parts of the Qur’an could be lost after the deaths of those who had memorized it.

A well-known report preserves the account of Zayd b. Thabit, which reflects hesitation surrounding this project. In fact, there was significant resistance to the idea of collecting the Qur’an into a single volume:

Abu Bakr said:

“Umar came to me and said: ‘The slaughter has taken a great toll on the reciters of the Qur’an on the day of Yamama and I fear…much of the Qur’an be lost. I think you should give orders for the Qur’an to be collected.’”

[Abu Bakr] said, “I asked Umar how I could do a thing which the Messenger of God had not done.” Umar replied, “By God it is a good thing!” And he kept on me about it until I came to be of the same opinion about it as he was.

Abu Bakr continued: “You are an intelligent young man… you used to write down the revelations for the Messenger of God. So track down the Qur’an and collect it.”

Zayd said, I said [to Abu Bakr] ‘By God if you had charged me with moving a mountain that would not have been more burdensome for me than what you have commanded me with regard to collecting the Qur’an! How can you do something which the Messenger of God did not do?’ He said, ‘By God it is a good thing!’ And he kept on at me about it until God opened my heart to accept what He had already convinced Abu Bakr and Umar of.”

— Kitab al-Mabani, ed. Jeffery, in “Two Muqaddimas to the Qur’anic Sciences,” 17–18; cited in Daniel A. Madigan, The Qur’an’s Self-Image, 26–27.

The Qur’an in its present form does not preserve the revelations in chronological order or as a continuous historical narrative. Instead, it reflects a compilation of recitations delivered by Prophet Muhammad over approximately 23 years, addressing different audiences and situations, which were later brought together into a single codified text.

In its original context and function, however, the Qur’an is best understood as an oral revelation meant to be heard rather than read as a conventional written book. As Navid Kermani explains:

“The Koran’s own conception of itself is as the liturgical recitation of the direct speech of God. It is a text intended to be read out loud. The written word is secondary… one cannot read it, one can only hear it… The Koran thus does not consist solely of the statements of a single speaker: it incorporates interjections from an audience… as well as spontaneous responses to these interjections, which repeatedly lead to abrupt changes of subject.”

— Navid Kermani, “Salafism or Philology: What can an Islamic scholar tell us?”, Qantara.de, 27 July 2016.

6. The Qur’an engages the religious and cultural world of its original audience

The Qur’an engages directly with the religious and cultural world in which it first emerged. It frequently reworks and reinterprets Jewish, Christian, and Arabian traditions circulating in late antiquity across the Hijaz and the wider Near Eastern world. Many of its narratives parallel, respond to, or reshape material found in biblical texts, post-biblical Jewish literature such as the Talmud, and early Christian writings.

As Angelika Neuwirth notes, the Qur’an emerges within a broader late antique culture of scriptural interpretation and debate:

“The Qur’anic age roughly coincides with the epoch when the great exegetical corpora of monotheist tradition were edited and published… These writings, not the Bible as is often held, are the literary counterparts of the Qur’an… The Qur’an should be understood first and foremost as exegetical, that is, polemical-apologetical, and thus highly rhetorical… a scripture providing commentary on a vast amount of earlier theological legacies.”

— Angelika Neuwirth, “Two Faces of the Qur’an”, 142.

In other words, Neuwirth’s point is that the Qur’an is not speaking into a vacuum. It is participating in an ongoing late antique religious conversation—responding to existing Jewish and Christian ideas, challenging them, and reshaping them as it speaks to its own audience.

7. The Qur’an is not identical with the Kitab

The Qur’an uses the term al-Kitab (“the Book”) in a much broader sense than the modern idea of a physical written book. It can refer to divine law, revelation, judgment, prior scriptures, God’s knowledge, and His all-encompassing decree. In this sense, al-Kitab is not simply a written text, but a symbol of divine authority, guidance, and cosmic order. Many scholars therefore caution against equating the Qur’an’s use of al-Kitab with a fixed, bounded “book” in the modern sense.

As Daniel Madigan explains, the Qur’an does not treat the kitab as a closed textual object, but as a living reality of divine guidance:

The Qur’an does not present the kitab as a closed and definable corpus of text, but rather as an ongoing relationship of guidance… The Qur’an actually rejects certain common conceptions of kitab. It is reiterated several times that in the ministry of the Prophet there comes to the Arabs “a kitab from God” (e.g. q 6:19, 114). However, it is also clear that Muhammad does not consider that the lack of any written text invalidates this claim in any way.

When the Prophet is challenged to produce a writing from heaven as proof of his authenticity (q 17:93), he is told to reply that he is merely a human messenger. In q 6:7 God says, “Even if we had sent down a kitab on papyrus and they were to touch it with their hands, those who disbelieve would have said, ‘This is clearly nothing but sorcery.’”

So when the Qur’an speaks of itself as kitab, it seems to be talking not about the form in which it is sent down but rather about the authority it carries as a manifestation of the knowledge and command of God.

— Daniel Madigan, Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, vol. 1, 250.

In other words, al-Kitab in the Qur’an refers less to a physical book and more to divine authority and decree.

The Kitab—variously referred to as Kitab, Umm al-Kitab, and Lawh al-Mahfuz—is described as the celestial archetype and ultimate source of divine knowledge, guidance, and revelation. By contrast, the Arabic qur’an appears as the temporal expression in human language of this eternal Kitab, revealed in a specific language, time, and historical context.

The Qur’an repeatedly describes the Kitab as being “sent down” (tanzil) and “unfolded” (tafsil) in the form of an Arabic recitation (qur’an), suggesting a distinction between the Kitab and the “Arabic Qur’an.” This relationship is reflected in several passages:

“Alif, Lam, Ra. These are the Signs (ayat) of the Clear Kitab (al-kitab al-mubin). Indeed, We have sent it down (anzalnahu) as an Arabic recitation (qur’anan ‘arabiyan).
— Qur’an 12:1–2

“By the Clear Kitab (al-kitab al-mubin). Indeed, We have made it (ja‘alnahu) an Arabic recitation (qur’anan ‘arabiyan).”
— Qur’an 43:2–3 (see also 15:1, 44:1–2, 26:2)

“Mankind was one single nation, and God sent Prophets with glad tidings and warnings; and with them He sent the Kitab (anzala ma‘hum al-kitaba) in truth, to judge between people in matters wherein they differed.
— Qur’an 2:213

As Nicholai Sinai notes, Qur’anic usage suggests that kitab and qur’an are not identical categories. In some Meccan passages they are distinguished: kitab evokes a celestial repository of divine knowledge, while qur’an refers to its earthly expression in recited form. On this reading, the Qur’an presents itself not as the original divine “book,” but as the articulated expression of it—both a translation and interpretation of a higher, pre-existing reality.

Sinai writes:

“The heavenly kitab is, as it were, ‘unpacked’ in the form of an Arabic recitation, rather than having been composed in Arabic from eternity on... The Qur’an considers itself both a translation and an interpretation of the kitab.”

— Nicholai Sinai, “Qur’anic self-referentiality as a strategy of self-authorization,” in Self-Referentiality in the Qur’an (2006), 121,124.

The Qur’an also describes the revelation of the Kitab as reaching the Prophet’s heart—understood in Qur’anic language as the seat of inner perception—in a non-verbal mode of reception, through divine “spirit” (ruh) and “light” (nur), emphasizing its transcendent origin alongside its articulation in Arabic speech:

“And that We have inspired you [Muhammad] with a Spirit (ruh) from Our Command. You did not know what was the Kitab and what was the Faith. But We have made it a Light (nur) by which We guide such of our Servants as We will. And verily, you guide to a Straight Path.”
— Qur’an 42:52

“And indeed, it is a revelation (tanzil) from the Lord of the Worlds. The Trustworthy Spirit has brought it down upon your heart that you may be of the warners in a clear Arabic language.”
— Qur’an 26:193–195

8. Prophet Muhammad was no mere “delivery service” for the Qur’an

The Qur’an presents Prophet Muhammad as far more than a passive transmitter of revelation. His roles (explained in detail here) include reciting the divine Signs, teaching God’s guidance, judging among the believers with wisdom, explaining the meaning of the revelations as they came, purifying the believers, praying for them, and receiving their offerings and repentance on behalf of God.

This broader prophetic function is reflected in the Qur’an itself:

“Certainly did God confer a great favor upon the believers when He sent among them a Messenger from themselves, reciting His Signs, and purifying them, and teaching them the Kitab and the Wisdom, although they had been before in manifest error.”

— Qur’an 3:164 (see also 62:2, 2:129, 2:151)

“And We have sent down unto you the Reminder, that you may explain clearly to mankind what was sent down for them, and that they may reflect.”

— Qur’an 16:44 (see also 16:64, 14:4)

As Islamic scholar Abdul Aziz Sachedina observes:

“Explication of the divine intention of the revelation was among the functions that the Qur’an assigned to the Prophet. The Prophet functioned as the projection of the divine message embodied in the Qur’an. He was the living commentary of the Qur’an, inextricably related to the revelatory text. Without the Prophet the Qur’an was incomprehensible, just as without the Qur’an the Prophet was no prophet at all.”

— Abdul Aziz Sachedina, “The Nature of Scriptural Reasoning in Islam,” Journal of Scriptural Reasoning 5, no. 1 (2005), 8.

9. The Qur’an recognizes people of different faiths as Believers and as muslims

Some mistranslations arise when the Arabic Qur’an is rendered into English (see here for common examples). One key issue is that islam in the Qur’an does not mean the later, institutional “religion of Islam.”

As Fred Donner explains:

“In other words, muslim in Qur’anic usage means, essentially, a committed monotheist, and islam means committed monotheism in the sense of submitting oneself to God’s will. This is why Abraham can be considered, in this Qur’anic verse [3:67], a hanif muslim, a ‘committed, monotheistic hanif.’ As used in the Qur’an, then, islam and muslim do not yet have the sense of confessional distinctness we now associate with ‘Islam’ and ‘Muslim’; they meant something broader and more inclusive and were sometimes even applied to some Christians and Jews, who were, after all, also monotheists (Q. 3:52, 3:83, and 29:46)”

— Fred Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam, 71.

In the Qur’an, islam simply means “submission to God,” and muslim refers to one who submits to God. In this usage, the terms are not restricted to a single historical community, but are applied broadly across religious history. Prophets of the past, the disciples of Jesus, earlier communities, Jews, Christians, and the followers of Muhammad are all described in this sense as muslim—those who submit to God.

This is reflected in the Qur’an itself:

“Indeed, the religion in the sight of God is submission (islam)…”
— Qur’an 3:19

“Seek they other than the religion of God, when unto Him submits (aslama) whoever is in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly…”
— Qur’an 3:83

“And whoever desires other than submission (islam) as religion—never will it be accepted from him…”
— Qur’an 3:85

Muhammad Asad similarly notes that later exclusivist meanings are not original to the Qur’anic usage:

“Throughout this work, I have translated the terms muslim and islam in accordance with their original connotations, namely, ‘one who surrenders [or has surrendered] himself to God’, and ‘man’s self-surrender to God’… The ‘institutionalized’ use of these terms—that is, their exclusive application to the followers of the Prophet Muhammad—represents a definitely post-Quranic development and, hence, must be avoided in a translation of the Quran.”

— Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur’an, 885, n. 17 (PDF, 1201).

On this basis, the Qur’an also extends the possibility of salvation beyond a single community. Jews, Christians, Sabians, and others are all included among those who may be saved, provided they believe in God and the Last Day and act righteously:

“Indeed, those who believe (in that which is revealed unto you, Muhammad), and those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabians—whoever believes in God and the Last Day and does right—surely their reward is with their Lord; they need have no fear, nor shall they grieve.”
— Qur’an 2:62

“For each We have appointed a law and a way. Had God willed, He could have made you one community, but [He intended] to test you in what He has given you; so race to do good. To God is your return all together, and He will then inform you concerning that over which you used to differ.”
— Qur’an 5:48

As Fred Donner further observes, some passages even suggest that certain “People of the Book” were considered part of the broader community of Believers:

“Closer examination of the Qur’an reveals a number of passages indicating that some Christians and Jews could belong to the Believers’ movement—not simply by virtue of their being Christians or Jews, but because they were inclined to righteousness.

For example, Q. 3:199 states, ‘There are among the people of the book those who Believe in God and what was sent down to you and was sent down to them…’ Other verses, such as Q. 3:113-116, lay this out in greater detail. These passages and other like them suggest that some peoples of the book Christians and Jews-were considered Believers.”

— Fred Donner, Muhammad and the Believers, 69–70.

In this context, the term kafir is better understood in its literal sense as “one who covers or conceals,” rather than a blanket label for all non-Muslims or simply as “unbelievers.” In many Qur’anic contexts, it carries the sense of knowingly concealing or rejecting the truth, rather than passive disbelief.

The Qur’an frequently contrasts kufr (covering/rejection) with shukr (gratitude), suggesting a moral and spiritual dimension to the term rather than a purely communal boundary.

10. The Qur’an is not a simple or self-explanatory text

The Qur’an does not present itself as a text that can be fully grasped at a superficial level. Its verses are rich in parables (amthal) and are consistently addressed to those who reflect, reason, and possess understanding.

It repeatedly calls its audience to think deeply and discern its meanings. Some verses indicate that its deeper, esoteric meaning meanings (ta’wil) are known only to God and a select group—those “firmly grounded in knowledge”—while others suggest that certain people will not comprehend it at all (6:25; 17:46; 18:57).

“It is an honorable Qur’an in a Hidden Kitab. None touch it except the purified.”
— Qur’an 56:78–79

“No one knows its inner, esoteric interpretation (ta’wil) except for God and those firmly grounded in knowledge (al-rasikhun fi’l-‘ilm).”
— Qur’an 3:7

“And We have certainly presented for the people in this Qur’an from every kind of example—that they might reflect.”
— Qur’an 39:27

“A Kitab which We have revealed to you, full of blessings, that they might reflect upon its signs (ayat) and that those of understanding (ulu’l-albab) would take heed.”
— Qur’an 38:29

“And those parables (amthal) We strike for humankind so that they may reflect.”
— Qur’an 59:21

“And these examples We present to the people, but none will understand them except the knowers (‘alimun).”
— Qur’an 29:43

“Nay, rather it [the Qur’an] is clear signs (ayat) in the breasts of those who are given knowledge (alladhi utu al-‘ilm).”
— Qur’an 29:49

“Then do they not reflect upon the Qur’an? If it had been from other than God, they would have found in it much contradiction.”
— Qur’an 4:82

These verses present the Qur’an not as a transparent or self-evident text, but as a layered discourse that calls for reflection, knowledge, and interpretation.

Conclusion

Taken together, these points challenge several widespread assumptions about the Qur’an—whether about its form, its language, its self-description, or the way it engages its audience.

What emerges is not a single fixed category, but a layered discourse: at once recited revelation and compiled scripture, historically situated yet theologically expansive.

Importantly, the Qur’an’s use of al-kitab (“the Book”) does not simply match the later idea of a physical, bound book in the familiar sense. It does not refer only to the Qur’an as a finished codified volume among other books, but often carries a broader meaning of divine authority, guidance, and decree within the Qur’anic discourse itself.

Likewise, its vocabulary does not always match later technical meanings—whether “Book,” or terms like “believer” and “muslim,” understood in their Qur’anic sense as one who submits to God.

In this light, the Qur’an presents itself as a text that calls for engagement rather than passive reading—addressing an audience expected to reflect, question, and think, rather than simply receive fixed propositions.

Recognizing this does not make the Qur’an simpler. It clarifies the range in which it operates and the depth of engagement it demands from its readers.

Ismaili Gnosis
May 5, 2026

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In Case You Missed It

Introduction

This article explores two foundational historical questions: did Prophet Muhammad exist, and when was the Qur’anic text formed?

To address this, it first examines the earliest available evidence—both Islamic and non-Islamic—for Muhammad as a historical figure in seventh-century Arabia. It then turns to manuscript evidence and modern scholarship on the Qur’an’s formation and transmission.

Taken together, this material offers a historically grounded account of early Islam—one often obscured in popular debates about its origins.

How Do We Know Prophet Muhammad Actually Existed?

While it has become increasingly common to question the historical existence of Prophet Muhammad—as well as figures like Moses, Jesus, and the Buddha—the evidence for Muhammad’s life in seventh-century Arabia is extensive and well supported.

As historian Fred Donner—Professor of Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago—observes:

“Muhammad is not completely a fiction of later pious imagination… we know that someone named Muhammad did exist, and that he led some kind of movement. And this fact, in turn, gives us greater confidence that further information in the massive body of traditional Muslim materials may also be rooted in historical fact.”

— Fred Donner, Muhammad and the Believers, 53.

What distinguishes Muhammad among founders of major religions is how early and how often he is mentioned in historical sources—many of them written within just a few years of his death.

Below are some of the earliest and most important examples:

1. Early Greek Source (c. 634 CE)

A Byzantine Greek text known as Doctrina Jacobi, written within two years of Muhammad’s death, refers to an Arab prophet leading a movement.

As historian Patricia Crone—former Professor of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge—notes, this source suggests that Muhammad was already known beyond Arabia during his lifetime and shortly after his death—making him one of the few religious founders mentioned in near-contemporary records.1

2. Syriac Manuscripts (c. 634–636 CE)

Early Syriac (Syrian Christian) texts dated just a few years after Muhammad’s death refer to him and the Arab conquests.2

These independent, non-Muslim sources confirm that a leader named Muhammad was associated with a rapidly expanding movement in the region.

3. Thomas the Presbyter (c. 640 CE)

A Syriac chronicle written around 640 CE—less than a decade after Muhammad’s death—refers to raids conducted by the followers of an Arab leader identified as Muhammad in the region near Gaza.

This is one of the earliest non-Muslim references to the emerging Arab movement.

Fred Donner notes that such early attestations are significant because they indicate that the movement associated with Muhammad was already visible to outside observers within a few years of his death.3

4. The Qur’an Itself

The Qur’an mentions Muhammad by name and presents him as a messenger of God, while also referring to events during his lifetime.

Scholars such as Patricia Crone and Fred Donner agree that the Qur’an preserves material that originates from Muhammad’s own preaching in the early seventh century.

As Crone notes:

“Mohammed is also mentioned by name, and identified as a messenger of God, four times in the Qur’an… We can be reasonably sure that the Qur’an is a collection of utterances that he made in the belief that they had been revealed to him by God.”

— Patricia Crone, “What Do We Actually Know About Mohammed”, June 2008.

Donner similarly emphasizes the early dating of the Qur’an and its connection to the earliest phase of the movement associated with Muhammad:

“For example, meticulous study of the text by generations of scholars has failed to turn up any plausible hint of anachronistic references to important events in the life of the later community, which would almost certainly be there had the text crystallized later than the early seventh century C.E. Moreover, some of the Qur’an’s vocabulary suggests that the text, or significant parts of it, hailed from western Arabia. So we seem, after all, to be dealing with a Qur’an that is the product of the earliest stages in the life of the community in western Arabia… The fact that the Qur’an text dates to the earliest phase of the movement inaugurated by Muhammad means that the historian can use it.”

— Fred Donner, Muhammad and the Believers, 56.

5. The Constitution of Medina

Early Islamic sources (8th century) preserve a political document known as the Constitution of Medina, which outlines agreements between Muhammad and the tribes of Yathrib (Medina).

Modern scholars generally accept that this document reflects a real historical context from Muhammad’s lifetime.4

6. Non-Muslim Historical Accounts (7th Century)

Several non-Muslim writers from the mid-600s also refer to Muhammad:

• The Armenian bishop Sebeos (writing in the 660s) describes Muhammad as a merchant who preached belief in one God and united the Arabs.5

• A Nestorian chronicle known as the Khuzistan Chronicle (also from the 660s) refers to Muhammad as the leader of the Arabs during their conquests.6

These accounts are especially important because they come from outside the Islamic tradition and still confirm Muhammad’s existence and role.

Taken together, these early sources—Greek, Syriac, Armenian, and Islamic—converge on the same basic conclusion: a man named Muhammad lived in seventh-century Arabia, preached monotheism, and led a movement that rapidly expanded beyond the region.

If Muhammad is established as a historical figure, the next question naturally follows: when was the Qur’anic text itself formed?

Scholarly Findings on the Dating of the Qur’anic Text

“We can be reasonably sure that the Qur’an is a collection of utterances that he [i.e. Muhammad] made… The book may not preserve all the messages he claimed to have received, and he is not responsible for the arrangement in which we have them. They were collected after his death — how long after is controversial. But that he uttered all or most of them is difficult to doubt.”

— Patricia Crone, “What Do We Actually Know About Mohammed”, June 2008.

The Qur’an did not begin as a single written book. It originated as a series of oral recitations delivered by Prophet Muhammad over roughly 23 years, in different contexts and situations.

His companions memorized these recitations and also recorded some of them in writing—on parchment, bones, and other materials. The Prophet himself never collected these recitations into a single document and never published the Qur’anic recitations as a “book.” After his death, these recitations were collected into a written codex. According to early Muslim sources, this process began under Abu Bakr and was later standardized under the Caliph ‘Uthman (d. 656).

In modern scholarship, a small number of revisionist theories have suggested that the Qur’an was formed significantly later than the time of Muhammad—sometimes placing its final composition one to two centuries after his lifetime (e.g., John Wansbrough). Others have proposed alternative explanations for its origins, including the idea that it derives from earlier Syriac Christian liturgical material (associated with Christoph Luxenberg). However, both theories have been widely discredited (see detailed discussion here).

The dominant view among historians and manuscript scholars is that both the manuscript evidence and the internal features of the Qur’an point to a text that was established by the mid-seventh century—close to Muhammad’s lifetime and broadly consistent with the early Islamic tradition.

Several of the earliest surviving manuscripts of the Qur’an support this early dating:

1. Birmingham Manuscript — carbon-dated to 568–645 CE, placing it within or very close to the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad.

2. Tübingen Manuscript — carbon-dated to 625–673 CE, consistent with an early first-century Islamic context.

3. Sanaa Manuscript — carbon-dated to 624–656 CE (68% probability), with a broader range of 578–669 CE (95% probability).

Scholarly analyses of the Qur’an and the Hadith literature (compiled roughly 200–300 years after Muhammad’s death) suggest that the Qur’anic text itself is significantly earlier in origin and broadly consistent with a mid-seventh-century dating. This aligns, in general terms, with early Islamic tradition.

One way scholars approach this question is by comparing the Qur’an with the later Hadith literature. If the Qur’an had been formed at a later stage, we would expect it to reflect many of the same political and historical concerns found in Hadith reports. However, the differences between the two corpora are striking.

For example, the Hadith literature is heavily concerned with questions of political authority and caliphal rule, whereas the Qur’an itself says little to nothing about political leadership. As Fred Donner observes:

“A much more natural way to explain the Qur’an’s virtual silence on the question of political leadership is to assume that the Qur’anic Text, as we now have it, antedates the political concerns enshrined so prominently in the hadith literature. This is what we might expect if the Qur’an text is the product of the time of Muhammad and his immediate followers.”

— Fred Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins, 46.

A related point concerns historical references. The Hadith corpus frequently reflects later historical developments and disputes, whereas the Qur’an contains no clear references to events, factions, or controversies that emerged after Muhammad’s lifetime.

Donner notes this absence explicitly:

“In the Qur’an… we find not a single reference to events, personalities, groups, or issues that clearly belong to periods after the time of Muhammad… This suggests that the Qur’an, as it now exists, was already a ‘closed’ body of text by the time of the First Civil War (656–661), at the latest.”

— Fred Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins, 49.

On this basis, Donner argues that the Qur’an likely reached a stable form very early in Islamic history:

“The evidence reviewed above…seems to point clearly to a relatively early date for the crystallization of the Qur’an text, and implies that this event must have been completed before the First Civil War (656-661).

…It does seem clear that the Qur’an text, as we now have it, must be an artifact of the earliest historical phase of the community of Believers.”

— Fred Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins, 61.

This conclusion is further supported by manuscript evidence. Gregor Schoeler—former Professor and Chair of Islamic Studies at the University of Basel—similarly argues that the compilation of the Qur’an likely occurred very early:

“The compilation and redaction of the Qur’an under ‘Uthman (unanimously supported by tradition) is, if not proven, then at least extremely possible… Even if the Qur’an was not compiled under ‘Uthman (d. 656), then the compilation must have taken place no more than a few decades later… we possess the fragments of a Quranic manuscript from Sanaa that dates back to the second half of the first century AH and contains the ‘Uthmanic text, without any variants as far as we know, and even includes the first and last surahs, typically absent from non-‘Uthmanic codices.”

— Gregor Schoeler, “The Codification of the Qur’an,” in The Qur’an in Context, ed. Angelika Neuwirth and Gerhard Bowering, 794-797: 792.

Conclusion

The evidence surveyed in this article points to a clear historical conclusion.

Early non-Muslim sources, alongside Islamic tradition, support the view that Muhammad was a real figure who led a religious movement in seventh-century Arabia. At the same time, manuscript evidence and textual analysis indicate that the Qur’an was already circulating in a stable form by the mid-seventh century, close to the time of its emergence.

While many questions about the development of early Islamic history remain open, the overall picture is clear: both the figure of Muhammad and the Qur’anic text belong firmly within the historical record of the seventh century.

Ismaili Gnosis
April 24, 2026

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In Case You Missed It

Notes

Welcome to Episode 8 of Ismaili Gnosis Chats with Max and Mikayla. Each episode draws on original research from Ismaili Gnosis articles.

Scroll down to play the podcast. After listening, you’ll find:

• Additional Q&A

• A video overview

• Ways to support Ismaili Gnosis

• Links to the original articles

Overview and Key Questions

Is it shirk (associating partners with God) to seek the help and blessings of the Imam through prayer (du‘a), or could this practice actually reflect a deeper understanding of true tawhid (God’s oneness)? This is the central question explored here, drawing directly from two Ismaili Gnosis articles that form the foundation for everything that follows: the podcast below, the extended written Q&A, and the focused video overview.

Across these materials, the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams are presented as a wasilah—a means through which divine mercy, guidance, and grace reach the believer. The discussion engages the concern that calling upon the Imam may conflict with God’s oneness, and instead develops the argument that, when properly understood, such mediation is not a denial of tawhid but its fulfillment. It also examines themes of hidden shirk, ego worship, and how pride can subtly shape one’s understanding of devotion.

Prayer is also explored not as a means of changing God, but as a process through which the soul is transformed and made receptive to divine grace through the intercession of the Imam of the Time. Within this framework, the Prophet and the Imams are understood as living channels of purification, helping believers attain inner peace and a deeper awareness of the Divine.

The podcast, Q&A, and video overview develop these ideas further. The written Q&A addresses the following questions:

1. How does prayer transform the soul’s receptivity to Divine mercy?

2. What is “Iblisian Tawhid” and its relation to the ego?

3. What is the difference between theological and ontological tawhid?

4. What are the four conditions for forgiveness in Qur’an 4:64?

5. How do the four conditions outlined in Qur’an 4:64 relate to the Imam?

6. How does the Qur’an depict Prophet Moses as a wasilah or intermediary between man and God?

7. How do Imams inherit the Prophet’s role as wasilah?

8. What is the meaning of “bi-haqqi” in Ismaili prayers?

Those who wish to go further can continue into the full podcast, Q&A, and video overview for a deeper engagement with these themes.

Read more

“And whoever obeys Allah
and the Messenger
will be in the company of those
on whom Allah has bestowed favors:
the prophets, the truthful,
the martyrs/witnesses,
and the righteous —
what honorable company!”

— Holy Qurʼan 4:69

In “Guardians of Esoteric Knowledge — Part 1”, we explored how Qurʼan 4:69 illuminates the chain of those entrusted with the ta‘lim (authoritative instruction) and taʼwil (esoteric interpretation) of Allah’s final message. Here, in Part 2, we turn to the question that naturally follows: how does this living transmission reach the Ismaili Jamat today?

As shown previously, the groups named in 4:69 appear in sequence — each reflecting a distinct role in the world of religion, ordered by proximity to the natiq or speaker-prophet. Sayyidna Nasir-i Khusraw explains that the natiq holds three ranks which are then inherited by those who follow him, with the sole exception of risalah, or prophethood itself.

“...the nāṭiq has three ranks, risālat (Prophethood), waṣāyat (legateeship) and imamate, while the asās has two, one being waṣāyat, (i.e. asāsiyyat [asās-ship]) and the other being imamate....”

— Sayyidnā Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Wajh-i Dīn, translated by Faquir Muhammad Hunzai as The Face of Religion, Discourse 11, forthcoming.

However, in discussing the taʼwil of the Islamic rite of ablutions or wuduʼ, Sayyidna Nasir reveals that the natiq in fact holds four ranks:

“…the nāṭiq…has four ranks: nubuwwat, waṣāyat, imamate and bābiyyat.”

“The face…signifies the nāṭiq…just as people are recognised by their face, religion is recognised by the nāṭiq…who is the face of the religion.”

“The face encompasses the four senses: sight, hearing, smell and taste. This means that God, may He be exalted, gave the nāṭiq four great ranks [nāṭiq, asās, Imam, and ḥujjat].”

— Sayyidnā Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Wajh-i Dīn (The Face of Religion), Discourse 15.

Nabuwwah and risalah are two terms for the same prophetic function, and Dr. Faquir Muhammad Hunzai clarifies that babiyyah (gateway-ship) refers to the role of the hujjah—an exalted rank, the literal meaning of which is “proof,” “argument,” or “evidence.”

The following Qurʼanic verses illustrate how the natiq historically embodied the role of hujjah within his mission:

These verses demonstrate how Hazrat Ibrahim⁽ᶜ⁾ embodied the role of hujjah, delivering divinely inspired arguments to those who disputed the faith. In the same way, the natiq exercises all functions of religious leadership, which are later distributed among the figures who follow him in the world of religion (‘alam-i din).

The number of ranks attributed to the natiq varies depending on the taʼwil being illustrated — three ranks when commenting on the three letters of ilah in the shahada (testimony of faith), four ranks when commenting on the four ritual requirements of ablution. What remains constant is the principle that every rank in the world of religion encompasses the powers of all ranks below it.

Returning to 4:69, we must now turn our attention to a fifth group, whose mention is somewhat concealed. They do not appear among the named groups but are found in the verse’s opening words: waman yutiʼil-laha wal-rasula — “and whoever obeys Allah and the Messenger.” This obedient group, too, will be in the company of the four, placing them on the sirat al-mustaqim.

To identify them, we follow the same rational rule of proximity that has guided us throughout: the closest to the natiq is his asas, the closest to the asas is the Imam, and the closest to the Imam is the hujjah. The identity of this fifth group is therefore determined by asking: who follows most closely behind the hujjah?

“Understand that for each Imam there are twelve visible diurnal ḥujjas and twelve concealed and hidden nocturnal ḥujjas...they are the veil of the Imam and are his mouthpieces and gateways, his deputies, and the messengers from him to the dā‘īs, who in turn convey the message to the believers.”

— Dā‘ī Abū ‘Abdallāh al-Shī‘ī, quoted in Sayyidnā Ibn al-Haytham, Kitāb al-Munāẓarāt (The Book of Discussions), translated by Wilfred Madelung and Paul E. Walker as The Advent of the Fatimids: A Contemporary Shi’i Witness, 97.

“After them there are five ranks that should be recognised. These correspond to the five senses in the physical creation (hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch). Similarly in spiritual creation are discernment, division, tanzīl (revelation), ta‘līf (compilation) and taʼwil, and combinations thereof. Corresponding to these five in the world of religion are the nāṭiq the asās, the Imam, the ḥujjat and the dā‘ī.”

— Sayyidnā Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Wajh-i Dīn (The Face of Religion), Discourse 33.

The most logical candidate for this fifth group is the daʿi. As the verse from Surah Al-Ahzab confirms, the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾ himself fulfilled this function in his own time.

Who Were the Da‘is?

During his Diamond Jubilee, Imam Shah Karim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾ initiated something whose full significance many in the Jamat have yet to contemplate — he conferred the title of da‘i upon every member of the community. In doing so, the Imam directed those who are ready to reflect on what this title truly means and what it demands. It is in that spirit that this section explores the role, purpose, and responsibilities of the Ismaili da‘i as preserved in our traditional sources.

Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾ has said:

“‘Be for us silent dā‘īs’, and they asked, ‘How can we make the appeal, O son of the Messenger of God, if we are silent?’ He replied, ‘Act in accord with what we commanded you to do with respect to obeying God and forbid what we forbade you to do.’”

— Sayyidnā Aḥmad b. Ibrāhīm al-Naysābūrī, al-Risāla al-mūjaza al-kāfiya fī ādāb al-duʿāt, translated by Verena Klemm and Paul E. Walker with Susanne Karam as A Code of Conduct: A Treatise on the Etiquette of the Fatimid Ismaili Mission, 41).

The da‘i’s first and foremost duty is complete obedience to the Imam of the Time. As Sayyidna Naysaburi illustrates through the concept of the “silent da‘i,” this obedience need not be expressed in words — it must be made visible in action, such that an observer finds in that person’s conduct a living example of the tariqah’s wisdom and ethics.

Anyone who seeks to answer the Imam’s call to be a da‘i should begin here: know the religious duties and ethical obligations of the tariqah, fulfill them to the highest degree, and abstain entirely from what the Imam has forbidden.

“In the case of the ‘daa-ee’ [da‘i] his first and foremost duty is to live in strict adherence to the principles laid down by his faith. He should be pious to the extreme....”

— Sayyidnā Qāḍī al-Nu‘mān, Kitāb al-himma fī ādāb atbā‘ al-a’imma, translated by Jawad Muscati and A. Moulvi as Code of Conduct for the Followers of Imam, 134-135.

Inseparable from this obedience is full faith in the Imam of the Time — finding no fault in him and refraining from prying into his personal affairs. This presupposes that one has become genuinely and intellectually convinced that the Ismaili Imam is the divinely designated guide not only of the Ismaili community, but of all humanity.

“To obey the commands and prohibitions of the Prophet in toto is enjoined on us by God. It is an act of devotion to Him. God has linked our devotion to Him with our devotion to the Imams. Lip-profession of devotion in words ceases to be a devotion unless it is prompted by conviction and is followed by practice.

To criticise the Prophet or to pry into his affairs or to show disapproval of his actions in words or in thoughts is abominable. It is strictly prohibited by God who through His holy Book has enjoined on us all to submit ourselves to his [i.e. the Prophet’s] will. Our faith is incomplete without our submission to his will. The holy Imams occupy a similar position. They are the representatives of the Prophet on earth and our devotion to them is devotion to the Prophet.

It logically follows that it is our bounded duty to obey the commands of every Imam of the time and submit to his will. To criticise him or to pry into his affairs is as abominable as to criticise the Prophet or to pry into his affairs.”

— Sayyidnā Qāḍī al-Nu‘mān, Code of Conduct for the Followers of Imam, 127-128.

Beyond obedience and faith, the da‘i carries a second, equally central responsibility: to be a bearer of true knowledge, capable of illuminating the souls of the believers.

“Our lord the Commander of the Faithful [Imam ‘Ali])…said: ‘Dā‘īs in religion distinguish between doubt and certainty.’ Distinguishing between doubt and certainty is to separate truth from falsehood. It is possible that he intended it to be between the literal exterior and the inner meaning. Someone who does not know the true and certain, how can he distinguish doubt from certainty, and the truth from falsehood?

The dā‘ī must know the difference between truth and falsehood, so that he can distinguish one from the other, lest he judge the false to be true, and the true to be false.”

— Sayyidnā al-Naysābūrī, A Code of Conduct, 40.

“The Ismaili da‘wa was, self-consciously, the instrument through which true religion — valid law and doctrine, proper belief and action, correct science and knowledge of the universe, rightful loyalty to God and His agent for human affairs, appropriate appreciation for the difference between appearance and reality, between the purely physical and the truly spiritual — was made known to mankind in general and to believers in particular.”

— Paul E. Walker, Early Philosophical Shiism: The Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Ya‘qūb al-Sijistānī, 6.

The da‘is are the foremost teachers of the Ismaili community. They are expected to become competent in addressing the full range of religious questions a believer may encounter: the practice of faith, the recognition of the Imam, the divine laws of creation, the nature of angels and jinn, and the purpose, origin, and final end of humankind.

Historically, the da‘is developed this competence within the formal Ismaili da‘wa, where they were trained as deputies under the hujjah of their region, learning to articulate and transmit the teachings of the Ismaili tariqah with clarity and authority.

“The da‘wa....was organized in ‘islands’ (jazāʼir, singular jazīra) under control of a higher ranking dā‘ī who bore the title of ḥujja (argument, proof or guarantor).”

“Subordinate to the ḥujja were numerous regional and local dā‘īs....”

— Heinz Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning, 57-58.

Through their direct spiritual connection to the Imam, the hujjahs were able to train the da‘is in a body of knowledge whose authority was guaranteed at its source. The written works of these hujjahs—Sayyidna Nasir-i Khusraw, Sayyidna Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani, Sayyidna Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani, Sayyidna al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi, Sayyidna Ja‘far b. Mansur al-Yaman, Qadi al-Nu‘man, and others — have survived to this day and remain an indispensable resource for any who seek to fulfill Mawlana Shah Karim⁽ᶜ⁾’s call to be the Imam’s da‘is.

“As for showing thankfulness to the Knower (who guided you), that is through obedience to him. As for thankfulness for the knowledge (he gave you), that is through putting it into action and calling (others) to it. And as for thankfulness for the (right religious) practice (he taught you), that is through steadfastness in (continuing) it and in calling (people) to it.”

— Sayyidnā Ja‘far b. Manṣūr al-Yaman, Kitāb al-‘Ālim wa’l-Ghulām, translated by James W. Morris as The Master and the Disciple: An Early Spiritual Dialogue, 63-64.

In these three forms of thankfulness, we find a precise map of everything explored in this section. Obedience to the Knower corresponds to the complete submission and faith in the Imam described by Sayyidna Qadi al-Nu‘man. Putting knowledge into action corresponds to the silent da‘i of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾—the one whose deeds speak before his words. And calling others to knowledge corresponds to the da‘i’s responsibility to illuminate and transmit what he has received.

The following passage from the same text makes the weight of this final obligation unmistakably clear.

The passage above reminds us that this knowledge did not originate with us — it has descended through countless intermediaries before reaching our hands, and it was never meant to stop here. Imam Shah Karim⁽ᶜ⁾ has reaffirmed the role of the da‘i for our time, and the works of the great hujjahs remain accessible.

Yet the historical da‘is did not rely on texts alone — they were formed within a living chain of transmission, under the guidance of those whose souls had been directly illuminated by the Imam. Whether such guidance still exists today, and where it might be found, are questions no serious seeker can avoid.

These are the questions Part 3 will confront.

Ya ‘Ali Madad,
Navid Amiri
April 11th, 2026

Contact: n11amiri@gmail.com
Follow on Instagram @ismaili intellectual tradition

Support Ismaili Gnosis

“Whether you are giving to an Imamat institution or to any other organization which works for good, these are the same in my eyes. All giving is an act of faith. All giving is of spiritual benefit.”

— Imam Shah Rahim al-Husayni⁽ᶜ⁾
(Dallas, Texas, November 10, 2025)

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IN CASE YOU MISSED IT

Welcome to Episode 7 of Ismaili Gnosis Chats with Max and Mikayla. Each episode draws on original research from Ismaili Gnosis articles.

Scroll down to play the podcast. After listening, you’ll find:

• Additional Q&A

• A video overview

• Ways to support Ismaili Gnosis

• A link to the original article

Podcast Summary

This episode explores the esoteric dimensions of Jesus’ life, death, and the Ismaili understanding of the Crucifixion. Drawing on the research of Dr. Khalil Andani and ‘Allamah Hunzai, it also weaves in modern rhyming poetry by Khayal ‘Aly inspired by the inner meaning of Christ’s resurrection and a life filled with the Holy Spirit. Moving beyond outward narratives, the discussion uncovers deeper symbolic connections—inviting listeners to reconsider familiar beliefs through a more unified and contemplative lens.

Read more

“On the Day when the earth will be changed
into another earth, and the heavens as well,
and they shall come forth before Allah,
the One, the Overwhelming
(al-Wāḥid al-Qahhār).”

— Qur’an 14:48

Opening Reflection

What if the “new earth and heavens” described in the Qur’an are not distant events awaiting the end of time, but subtle realities already hidden within your own soul? What if the Day of transformation is not only something to come, but something to be discovered within?

In this post, drawing on Key Qur’anic Wisdoms from the tradition of Ismaili Gnosis, we explore the hidden meaning of Qur’an 14:48 alongside verses such as 31:28 and 2:117—where the mystery of the Single Soul (Nafs-i Wahida) and the Divine power of God, al-Wahid al-Qahhar, begin to unfold.

These verses point toward a profound inner reality: that the “changing of the earth and the heavens” is not only cosmic, but experiential — unveiled within the personal world of the seeker, where a deeper unity and a hidden dimension of existence begin to emerge.

Question:

What is the true meaning (ta’wil) of Qur’an 14:48:

“On the Day when the earth will be changed into another earth, and the heavens as well, and they shall come forth before Allah, the One, the Overwhelming (al-Wahid al-Qahhar)”?

How are we to understand this changing of the earth and the heavens, and what is the role of God as al-Wahid al-Qahhar in this transformation?

Read more

Welcome to Episode 6 of Ismaili Gnosis Chats with Max and Mikayla. Each episode draws on original research from Ismaili Gnosis articles.

Scroll down to play the podcast. After listening, you’ll find:

• Additional Q&A

• A video overview

• Ways to support Ismaili Gnosis

• A link to the original article

Podcast Summary

This episode explores the esoteric meaning of Nawruz as more than a seasonal celebration—it is a call to inner renewal. Introducing the “microcosmic earth,” the arrival of the eternal inner Spring, and a personal Nawruz, it shifts focus to the awakening of the heart and soul.

Through Ismaili teachings, the discussion highlights the Manifest Imam as the “Spiritual Sun” whose light brings true inner spring. Drawing on Qur’anic themes, ginans, poetry, and ta’wil, it presents Nawruz as a symbol of resurrection, transformation, and spiritual rebirth.

At its core, it invites listeners to discover the true Nawruz and experience a real springtime revival within—one that never fades.

Ismaili Gnosis Chats
Episode 6

“The True Nawruz
and the Real Springtime Revival”

(click the play button ▶ to listen)

Questions & Answers
Based on the Article

1. Explain the difference between exoteric and esoteric Nawruz.

In Ismaili thought, the distinction between the exoteric (zahir) and esoteric (batin) Nawruz is defined by the difference between the renewal of the physical world and the transformation of the inner soul.

Exoteric New Day (Zahiri Nawruz)

The exoteric Nawruz refers to the macrocosmic earth, which is the physical ground we stand on. Its characteristics include:

• Automatic Process: It unfolds automatically through the physical motion of the planet and the light of the physical sun.

• Universal Visibility: It is marked by the vernal equinox, longer days, and the visible revivification of barren lands. Because it is a physical phenomenon, it can be appreciated by anyone, regardless of their faith.

• Temporal Nature: This “worldly” Nawruz is described as something that eventually becomes “worn-out” and must be replaced by subsequent cycles. It is often celebrated through outward changes, such as wearing “bright and colourful garments”.

Esoteric New Day (Batini Nawruz)

The esoteric Nawruz belongs to the microcosmic earth, or the “personal world” (‘alam-i shakhsi), which represents the heart, soul, and intellect of the believer. Its characteristics include:

• Required Effort: Unlike the automatic physical spring, the spiritual Nawruz requires individual awareness, effort, and divine grace.

• The Spiritual Sun: It occurs when the inner self is illumined by the “Spiritual Sun” or “Sun of Religion,” which is the Manifest Imam (Imam-i Mubin, Qur’anic reference: 36:12).

• Transformation of Existence: The “true” New Day is defined by a transformation of life and actions rather than just a change of the year. This entails exchanging heedlessness for conscious spiritual struggle, worldly attachment for love of the Imam, and “blind following” (taqlid) for realized certainty through spiritual search and verification (tahqiq).

• Eternal Nature: This spiritual spring is described as “safe from ever fading” and is associated with the mercy of the Sustainer, which never ages.

The Symbolic Relationship

The exoteric Nawruz serves as a sign and symbol of the esoteric. While people of “exterior forms” (zahir) focus on sowing physical fields or changing their clothes, the “people of interior meaning” (batin) recognize that this world is a sowing ground for the next and seek to purify and refine their hearts with the guidance of the Imam. Ultimately, while the physical Nawruz is brought about by a change of the calendar, the spiritual Nawruz is realized only through the “transformation of life itself”.

2. How do Ismaili Ginans and poetry symbolize the Imam?

In Ismaili ginans and poetry, the Imam is symbolized through potent metaphors of nature, light, and celestial phenomena, primarily representing him as the source of spiritual life and renewal.

Symbolism in Ismaili Ginans

The ginanic tradition of South Asia characterizes the Imam as the catalyst for the soul’s awakening:

• Spring Eternal and the Divine Bridegroom: A Sindhi ginan by Pir Ṣadr al-Din describes the Imam as “Spring eternal” and a “groom” for whom every “maiden soul” longs.

• The Rising Sun: In Gujarati ginans, the Imam’s arrival is compared to the “rising sun” from the West, which shatters the darkness of the “night” of ignorance.

• The Catalyst for Blossoming: The ginans specify that the Imam’s presence causes the believers themselves to “burst into bloom” and become “redolent with fragrance,” rather than referring to physical vegetation.

• Lord of the Resurrection: Sayyid Fath ‘Ali Shah Shamsi addresses the Imam as the “most luminous Imam, lord of the resurrection,” whose vision appears as “pure light” to fulfill the seeker’s untold hopes.

Symbolism in Ismaili Poetry

Persian Ismaili literature uses similar imagery, often deeply intertwined with the festival of Nawruz:

• The “New Day” (Nawruz) and Hidden Fortune: In the poetry of Hasan-i Mahmud, the Imam’s advent is directly compared to Nawruz itself and described as a “hidden fortune” and the “qibla of faith”.

• Nur al-Din (Light of Faith): The Imam is frequently symbolized as the “light of faith,” whose radiance ennobles his devotees and grants them a portion of “divine light” while his “fire” torments his foes.

• The Face of God (Wajh Allah): Poets like Hasan-i Mahmud aver that the world abides by the presence of the Imam, who represents the “face of God” by which the Divine is recognized.

• The Supreme Spring and Supreme Name: In more modern Persian-influenced Urdu poetry by ‘Allamah Hunzai, the Imam is the “Supreme Spring” (Bahar-i nur-i a‘zam) and the living “Supreme Name” (ism-i a‘zam), through whom spiritual resurrection occurs in the hearts of his lovers.

Universal Symbolic Roles

Across both linguistic traditions, the sources identify several common symbolic roles for the Imam:

• The Spiritual Sun: The Imam is the “Sun of Religion” or “Spiritual Sun” whose light is necessary to revive the “microcosmic earth” (the believer’s inner soul).

• The Bounteous Rain: The Imam is depicted as one whose “right hand scatters blessed rain upon the creation” and whose “forehead is dawn itself”.

• The Eternal Lamp: The Imam is described as a “lamp that is never extinguished” by the winds of change, providing the “polishing rays” of guidance that allow the heart to shine with gnosis.

3. Explain the role of the Imam as the “Resurrector”.

In Ismaili thought, the role of the Imam as the Resurrector (or Qa’im) is primarily defined by his power to trigger a spiritual awakening and renewal in the hearts of believers, a process often symbolically linked to the arrival of spring and Nawruz.

The following aspects detail his role as the Resurrector according to the sources:

Initiator of Spiritual Resurrection (Qiyama)

The Imam is described as the one through whom spiritual resurrection takes place in the hearts of his lovers. This is not viewed merely as a physical end-of-time event, but as an internal transformation. For example, in the poetry of ‘Allamah Hunzai, the Present Imam is the living “Supreme Name” (ism-i a‘zam) who ushers in this state of qiyama. Historically, this role was emphasized during the Alamut period when Imam Ḥasan ‘alā dhikrih al-salām formally declared the Resurrection, a moment poets compared to the advent of a spiritual Nawruz.

The Lord of the Resurrection

In the ginanic tradition, the Imam is explicitly titled the “Lord of the Resurrection”. In this capacity, his role includes:

• Reviving the Soul: Just as the physical sun revives the earth, the Imam, as the “Spiritual Sun,” revives the “microcosmic earth”—the heart and intellect of the believer.

• Granting Supreme Knowledge: His presence fills the “empty caskets” of the soul with “pearls,” which are symbols of supreme knowledge and gnosis (ma‘rifa).

• Fulfilling Spiritual Longing: He is the “eternal spring” who fulfills the untold hopes of the faithful by appearing to them as “pure light”.

Eschatological Triumph

The sources also link the Resurrector to significant events in sacred history and eschatology. According to traditions attributed to Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq, Nawruz is the day on which:

• The Resurrector appears alongside his deputies.

• He triumphs over the Antichrist (Dajjal), symbolizing the ultimate victory of light over darkness and truth over falsehood.

Ushering in the “Supreme Spring”

The Imam as Resurrector is the source of the “Supreme Spring” (Bahar-i nur-i a‘zam). While physical spring is a “worn-out” cycle that eventually fades, the resurrection brought by the Imam is an “eternal spring” safe from fading. This role involves guiding the “sincere seeker” from the “decrepit well of darkness” into a state of union with the divine.

Ultimately, the Imam’s role as the Resurrector is to act as the “Sun of Religion” whose “luminous manifestation” (nurani tajalli) provides the light necessary for the believer to “cross to the other shore” of spiritual realization.

4. How can a believer transform their life to experience Nawruz?

To experience the spiritual Nawruz—the “New Day” of the inner self—a believer must move beyond the external celebration of the seasons and undergo a profound transformation of their actions, deeds, and very existence. While the physical Nawruz occurs automatically through nature, the esoteric Nawruz requires awareness, effort, and divine grace.

According to the sources, this transformation involves several specific ethical and spiritual shifts:

Spiritual Realization over Blind Following

A believer must abandon the “darkness of blind following” (taqlid) in favor of the “light of true spiritual search and realization” (tahqiq). This involves recognizing that the heart, soul, and intellect constitute a “microcosmic earth” that must be revived by the “Spiritual Sun,” the Manifest Imam.

Ethical and Behavioral Transformation

The Tazyeen al-Majalis outlines several key exchanges a believer must make to “mend their ways”:

• From Heedlessness to Struggle: Transform “heedlessness into consummate struggle,” recognizing that this world is the “sowing ground” for the next. One must actively sow seeds of goodness rather than whiling away time.

• From Worldly Attachment to Divine Love: Replace worldly attachments, which are the “root of all evil,” with a singular love for the Imam. Worldly wealth is described as a delusion that can reduce acts of worship to dust.

• From Gossip to Virtuous Speech: Supplant gossip—described as “more loathsome than adultery”—with speaking well of others to find refuge in the “company of gnosis”.

• From Arrogance to Humility: Exchange arrogance for submissiveness and humility, as those who consider themselves greater than others are barred from the “sanctuary of divine splendour”.

The “Unspeakable Mystery” of Non-existence

A deeper level of transformation requires exchanging “existence for non-existence”. This involves:

• Burning the Ego: In the “fire of unity,” the believer must burn the ego of “I” and “we” to overcome the “eye of multiplicity”.

• Acting Against Whims: One must act contrary to the “inclinations of your ephemeral nature” and the “desires of your carnal whims and lusts”. By “ceasing to exist” in this ego-driven sense, a believer can “light [their] candle with faith”.

Following the Guidance of the Imam

The soul’s “blossoming” is ultimately tied to the Imam’s presence and direction:

• Following Decrees (Farmans): Mowlana Sultan Muhammad Shah advised that the “(real) Navroz” begins for a seeker when they follow the Imam’s farmans.

• Seeking Gnosis: Believers are encouraged to “burnish” their hearts with the “polishing rays of the righteous teacher’s guidance” so they may shine with the light of gnosis.

• Longing for Illumination: The transformation is fulfilled through the “luminous manifestation” (didar) of the Imam, whose light guides and revives the soul.

Ultimately, the sources distinguish between the “people of falsehood,” who merely change their clothes for the holiday, and the “people of verity,” whose Nawruz lies in changing their actions. By seeking the “glory of the Creator” within rather than just the “glory of creation” without, the believer’s life-breath can “blossom like a flower

5. How did Muslims Cultures Observe Nawruz?

Muslim societies have observed Nawruz through a combination of imperial pageantry, religious reinterpretation, and specific cultural rituals, though attitudes toward the festival have varied across different scholarly and dynastic traditions.

Imperial and Dynastic Celebrations

Historically, major Muslim dynasties celebrated Nawruz with significant pomp and pageantry. These included:

• The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: Observed the festival as a grand occasion.

• The Fatimid Empire: Celebrated the day with royal splendor.

• Various Muslim Dynasties: Continued the tradition across different regions and eras.

Exoteric (Outward) Customs

For many, the observation of Nawruz focused on the exterior (zahir) or physical aspects of the “New Day.” Common outward practices included:

• Festive Attire: People of “exterior forms” marked the day by wearing “all manner of bright and colourful garments and ornaments”.

• Public Displays: The celebration often involved dazzle and glitter and joyful festivities.

• Agricultural Timing: Farmers and those focused on the physical world viewed Nawruz as the specific time when fields are to be sown.

Religious and Scriptural Reinterpretation

Many Muslim scholars sought to ground Nawruz within Islamic history rather than just its pre-Islamic roots.

• Connection to Prophets: Al-Maqrizi linked the day to Prophet Abraham’s escape from the fire, Prophet Moses’ confrontation with Pharaoh’s magicians, and the recovery of Solomon’s ring.

• Shi‘i Sacred History: Traditions attributed to Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq⁽ᶜ⁾ identify Nawruz as the day God accepted the covenants of His servants, the day Noah’s ark grounded on Mount Ararat, and the day the Prophet Muhammad⁽ˢ⁾ ordered his companions to pledge allegiance to ‘Alī⁽ᶜ⁾ as Commander of the Faithful.

• Eschatological Significance: It is also viewed as the day on which the Resurrector (Qā’im) shall appear and triumph over the Antichrist (Dajjal).

Ismaili Observance: The Spiritual Nawruz

In Ismaili Muslim societies, the observation is characterized by a balance between the outward (zahir) celebration and a deep esoteric (batin) meaning.

• Recitation of Literature: In South Asia, the festival is marked by the recitation of ginans, specifically those by Pir Sadr al-Din and Sayyid Fath ‘Ali Shah Shamsi, which symbolize the Imam as “Spring Eternal”.

• Internal Transformation: For “people of interior meaning,” the day is observed by “changing their actions” rather than just their clothes. This involves exchanging sins for virtues, such as replacing gossip with speaking well of others and arrogance with humility.

• Recognition of the Imam: The festival is observed as a “symbolic reminder of Luminous illumination” and the “luminous manifestation” (nurani tajalli) of the Imam of the time.

Scholarly Debates

Observation was not universally accepted; some scholars, such as al-Ghazali, “frowned upon” the prominence of Nawruz customs due to their pre-Islamic origins. However, many others embraced it by “sacralising” the symbols of spring to convey spiritual knowledge.

Video Overview

Ya ‘Ali Madad,
Khayāl ‘Aly
3/20/26

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Original Article Link

Welcome to Episode 5 of Ismaili Gnosis Chats with Max and Mikayla. Each episode draws on original research from Ismaili Gnosis articles.

Scroll down to play the podcast. After listening, you’ll find additional Q&A, a video overview, and a link to the original article.

Podcast Summary

What if the Night of Power is not only a sacred night in history—but a profound spiritual state the human soul can actually become?

In this episode, we explore hidden, esoteric dimensions of Laylat al-Qadr, unveiling it as a moment of deep spiritual reset and revival that reaches far beyond annual rituals or commemorations. Drawing on the wisdom of Ismaili Gnosis, this conversation illuminates the inner journey of spiritual resurrection—the transformative process through which the human soul evolves from a latent potential into an awakened, angelic reality.

Along the way, listeners are invited to contemplate a powerful possibility: that the descent of angels described in the Qur’an is not only a cosmic event, but something that can unfold within the microcosm of the human soul itself

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We are pleased to share below two recorded academic talks of Dr. Khalil Andani (PhD Harvard, Assistant Professor of Religion) on the Ismaili Muslim interpretations (ta’wil) of Laylat al-Qadr grounded in the ta’wili teachings of the Fatimid Ismaili Hujjahs and Da‘is. In these lectures, Dr. Andani draws on Ismaili teachings to show how Laylat al-Qadr in its esoteric meaning alludes to a hidden spiritual personality who unveils hidden truths.

Part 1:

Part 2:

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“Whether you are giving to an Imamat institution or to any other organization which works for good, these are the same in my eyes. All giving is an act of faith. All giving is of spiritual benefit.”

— Imām Shāh Raḥīm al-Ḥusaynī⁽ᶜ⁾
(Dallas, Texas, November 10, 2025)

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Excerpts from Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī’s Rawda-yi Taslīm, translated by S.J. Badakhchani as Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought (London and New York, 2005), 126–133 (translation slightly modified). Section headings have been added for clarity.

Knowledge of the Imam: Four Categories of Recognition (Ma‘rifat)

Knowledge (ma‘rifat) of the Imam, from the point of view of his real being as Imam, is impossible for mankind; but in terms of [his] relation with mankind, knowledge of him has been arranged into four categories so that no one may be deprived of recognising him according to the degree he has in the scale of being.

1. The first is the knowledge of the person of the Imam in his physical (jismani) form. Animals share this [kind of] recognition [with humans], as do [his] enemies. If this recognition did not exist, when [his followers] want to prostrate before him, how can they know before whom they should prostrate and towards whom they should place their faces on the ground?

2. The second is the knowledge of his common name (ism-i ‘amm) and physical genealogy. This recognition is shared alike by the followers of truth (muhiqqan) and the followers of falsehood (mubtilan), by hypocrites and faithful believers. If this kind of knowledge did not exist, when they want to perform their prayers, they would not know who is to be named in their prayers (du‘a) and to whom they should address their prayers for forgiveness and repentance.

3. The third is the knowledge of his Imamate and faith in and submission (taslim) to him. In this [kind of] recognition there is a radical distinction made between the follower of truth and the follower of falsehood. The good become distinguished from the bad through dissociation (tabarra) [from them] and by expressing their love (tawalla) [for the Imam] are admitted into his congregation.1

4. The fourth is the knowledge of his essence (dhat) through [recognition of] the reality of his attributes. This [type of] knowledge is obtained by one’s affirmation of the divine transcendence (tanzih) and holiness (taqdis) and is utterly unlike all other forms of knowledge [so far mentioned]. [Here], even the holy souls and enlightened minds lack the power to gaze directly upon the sun of this knowledge, [such that] “Minds are perplexed without reaching him, eyesight is blinded, speculation is nullified, knowledge is defeated, holy souls have perished and illuminated minds are brought to nought.”2 (Paradise of Submission, 126–127).

Index of Truth: The Truth Follows the Imam

[…] In all periods and at all times the welfare of mankind depends on what he orders. (Paradise of Submission, 128).

[…] The following is one of the sayings [of the Imams]: “Our affair is one of intense hardship, our secret a dreadful mystery. No one can bear it except an angel close [to God], a Prophet sent as a messenger, or a believer whose heart God has tested with faith.”3 And the following is [another] saying — upon his mention be peace (li-dhikrihi as-salam): “You will be sifted like grain in a sieve, boiled like water in a pot, mixed up, until you are turned completely upside-down.”4 … This means you will be subjected to afflictions and perplexities of trials and tribulations; you will be turned upside-down, so that your essence (khulasa) will [be purified and] remain on top, leaving whatever is left on the bottom. (Paradise of Submission, 128).

[…] Anyone who reasons to himself that the Imam — upon his mention be peace — should act according to the prescriptions of the founder of the religious law in order to be Imam and in order to be impeccable (ma‘sum), that he should adhere to the canons of ascetic piety and holy chastity which ordinary people consider to be piety and chastity, [such a person] can be numbered among those who are described, when discussions about human intelligence are broached, as [possessing] ‘such denial, such devilry, which resembles reason, but is not reason!’5 Such a person does not have even an iota of understanding regarding the condition of the Imamate.

When such people witness the behaviour and actions of the Imam — upon his mention be peace — they become delirious, thinking these to be terrible transgressions, uttering things ‘whereby the heavens are almost torn asunder’ (Qur’an 19:90). For the Imam — upon his mention be peace — exercises his judgement in a manner that is beyond the comprehension of mankind. Therefore, only that person of whom it can be said that ‘The believer has been created from [the Light of] God, and when God orders him something, he will recognise it’6 will be able to disclose this mystery by the light of his primordial conscience (nur-i fitrat). Such a person knows, beyond any shadow of doubt or suspicion, that it is the truth which follows the Imam, not the Imam who has to follow the truth. This is because the Imam is the lord of truth (khudawand-i haqq), and his will and desire have no need to be justified or motivated by any secondary cause; from his perspective, the cause, the caused and the causation are all the same.

Similarly, such a person will understand that [the Imam] is truthful in essence (muhiqq-i bi-dhat), such that all those who become adepts in truth have been vouchsafed their truthfulness through his influence and grace. All that the worldly folk deem to be truth, when he declares it false, they also apprehend it to be false; and all that the world regards as false, when he declares it to be truth, they consider it to be true. Thus, it is the Imam who is the index of truth (nishan-i haqq) in every situation and time, not his [transient] words and deeds. They consider truth without him as infidelity (kufr), and to set it [i.e., truth] besides him as polytheism (shirk). By this means, such a person can attain to the supreme height [of understanding] which is the abode of the most advanced adepts (sabiqan). However, as for the one of whom it is said that ‘the infidel (al-kafir) is created from the sins committed by the believer,’ he will fall into everlasting nothingness and eternal humiliation due to his own obstinacy, denial and opposition to the Imam. We seek refuge from this in God. (Paradise of Submission, 129–130).

Call the Imam: He Is All Things

Now, you may call the Imam — upon his mention be peace — either ‘Imam’, or the ‘eternal Face of God’ (wajh Allah al-baqi), or the ‘Supreme Attribute’ (sifat-i a‘zam), or the ‘Great Name of God’ (nam-i buzurg-i khuday), or the ‘Manifestation of the Supreme Word’ (mazhar-i kalima-yi a‘la), or the ‘Truthful Master of the Age’ (muhiqq-i waqt). For he is all things even without creation, whereas all creation devoid of him is but nothing. All these titles have one and the same meaning. (Paradise of Submission, 133).

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Translator’s Notes (S. J. Badakhchani)